Effect of the form of dietary fat and the concentration of dietary neutral detergent fiber on ileal and total tract endogenous losses and apparent and true digestibility of fat by growing pigs

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An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of the form of dietary fat (extracted or intact fat) and of dietary NDF on ileal and total tract endogenous losses of fat (ELF), on apparent ileal (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of fat, and on true ileal (TID) and true total tract digestibility (TTTD) of fat in growing pigs. A cornstarch based basal diet that contained 1.27% fat was prepared and 3 diets were formulated by adding 2.0, 4.0, or 6.0% extracted fat (corn oil) to the basal diet at the expense of cornstarch. Three additional diets were formulated by adding 3.1, 6.2, or 9.3% Solka-Floc (International Fiber Corp., North Tonawanda, NY) to the diet containing 4.0% corn oil at the expense of cornstarch. The remaining 4 diets were prepared by adding whole corn germ meal to the diet at the expense of defatted corn germ meal to contain 3.0, 6.0, or 9.0% intact fat. Solka- Floc was also included in this diet at the expense of cornstarch in an attempt to keep NDF constant. Eleven barrows (initial average BW of 38.1 kg) were fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum, allotted to the 11 diets in an 11 × 11 Latin square design, and fed the diets at 3 times the energy requirement for maintenance. Increasing dietary extracted fat increased (linear and quadratic) the AID and ATTD of fat. Increasing dietary intact fat also increased (linear and quadratic) the AID and ATTD of fat. The average apparent digestibility of extracted fat (81.9%) was greater than that of intact fat (63.2%). Estimates of ELF were smaller for extracted fat than for intact fat at the end of the ileum and over the entire intestinal tract, but the TID (93.8%) and TTTD (94.2%) of extracted fat were greater than the TID (78.6%) and TTTD (84.1%) of intact fat. Increasing dietary extracted fat had no effects on the TID and TTTD of fat, but increasing dietary intact fat resulted in a quadratic reduction in the TTTD of fat. Increasing dietary NDF had a quadratic effect on the ATTD of fat but did not influence the AID, TID, and TTTD of fat. In conclusion, extracted fat induces a smaller amount of ELF and has a greater apparent and true digestibility than intact fat at the end of the ileum and over the entire intestinal tract. Purified NDF has little influence on apparent and true digestibility of fat.

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Effect of phytase on apparent total tract digestibility of phosphorus in corn-soybean meal diets fed to finishing pigs

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Five experiments were conducted to investigate the ability of different phytase products to improve P digestibility in finishing pigs. A corn-soybean meal basal diet containing 0.50% Ca, 0.32% P, and 0.40% Cr2O3 was used to calculate apparent P and GE digestibility. Pigs were individually penned and fed their respective diet for ad libitum intake for 12 d before fecal sampling on d 13 and 14 and blood collection on d 14 for plasma P determination. Experiments 1 through 4 used gilts with across-trial average initial and final BW of 84 and 97 kg, respectively. Pigs were fed Natuphos (Exp. 1), OptiPhos (Exp. 2), Phyzyme (Exp. 3), or RonozymeP (Exp. 4) at 0, 200, 400, 600, 800, or 1,000 phytase units (FTU)/kg (where 1 FTU is defined as the quantity of enzyme required to liberate 1 μmol of inorganic P per min, at pH 5.5, from an excess of 15 μmol/L of sodium phytate at 37°C). Experiment 5 used barrows with initial and final BW of 98 and 111 kg, respectively, and were fed diets containing 0, 500, or 1,000 FTU/kg of Natuphos, OptiPhos, Phyzyme, or RonozymeP. Pigs fed Natuphos (Exp. 1) and OptiPhos (Exp. 2) exhibited a linear and quadratic improvement in P digestibility with increasing levels of dietary phytase, whereas pigs fed Phyzyme (Exp. 3) and RonozymeP (Exp. 4) exhibited a linear improvement in apparent P digestibility with increasing levels of dietary phytase. In Exp. 5, the improvement in apparent P digestibility with increasing levels of dietary phytase was linear for Natuphos, Phyzyme, and RonozymeP, but was linear and quadratic for OptiPhos. Based on regression analysis, inorganic P release at 500 FTU/kg was predicted to be 0.070, 0.099, 0.038, and 0.030% for Natuphos, OptiPhos, Phyzyme, and RonozymeP, respectively. These estimates are comparable with those of pigs in Exp. 5, for which the estimated inorganic P release at 500 FTU/kg was 0.102, 0.039, and 0.028% for OptiPhos, Phyzyme, and RonozymeP, respectively, but not for the 0.034% value determined for Natuphos. The effect of dietary phytase on GE digestibility was inconsistent with a linear improvement in GE digestibility noted for OptiPhos (Exp. 2 and 5) and RonozymeP (Exp. 4), but the quadratic improvement for Natuphos. There was no effect of dietary phytase on plasma inorganic P. The data presented show clear improvements in P digestibility, with the estimated level of inorganic P release being dependent on phytase source and level.

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Observations of market pigs following transport to a packing plant

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A field study was conducted to record observations of 41,744 market-weight pigs upon arrival at a commercial abattoir to evaluate the relationships between various independent factors and open-mouth breathing, skin discoloration, lameness, unloading time, and mortality during transport. Observations were recorded from 242 trailer loads on 46 separate days over a period of 14 mo. Travel time (<2.5 h or ≥2.5 h), wait time before unloading (<20 min or ≥20 min), loading pressure (<260 kg of BW/m2 trailer floor space or ≥260 kg of BW/m2 trailer floor space), ambient temperature while unloading (<17°C or ≥17°C), and trailer type [potbelly (PB); straight-deck with conventional unloading doors (SDC); or straight-deck with wide unloading doors (SDW)] were recorded for each load. Open-mouth breathing was more prevalent in pigs when transported on PB trailers compared with that of SDC or SDW trailers, and at warmer temperatures (≥17°C). Skin discoloration was more prevalent among pigs unloaded at temperatures ≥17°C. Lameness was more prevalent after shorter travel times at greater loading pressure compared with shorter travel times at decreased loading pressure. Unloading time for PB trailers was longer than for SDC and SDW. Mortality rates during transport were minimal (0.06%) in the deliveries that we observed, and there were no significant relationships between mortality and any independent variable tested. Wait time before unloading was not associated with any of the dependent variables included in the statistical model. In conclusion, warmer ambient temperatures (≥17°C) and the use of PB trailers are associated with an increased incidence of open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration, and longer unloading times after the transport of market pigs.

Effects of fermented soybean meal and specialty animal protein sources on nursery pig performance

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In 2 experiments, 602 pigs were used to evaluate the effects of fish meal, fermented soybean meal, or dried porcine solubles on phase 2 nursery pig performance. In Exp. 1, nursery pigs (n = 252; PIC TR4 × 1050; 6.8 kg initial BW and 7 d after weaning) were fed: 1) a control diet containing no specialty protein sources and the control diet with 2) 5% fish meal, 3) 3.5% dried porcine solubles, 4) 6.0% fermented soybean meal, 5) a combination of 1.75% fermented soybean meal and 1.75% dried porcine solubles, or 6) a combination of 3.0% fermented soybean meal and 2.5% fish meal. There were 7 replications with 6 pigs per pen. Experimental diets were fed for 14 d, and then all pigs were fed a common diet without specialty protein sources for 14 d. From d 0 to 14, pigs fed dried porcine solubles alone or with fermented soybean meal had improved ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed all other diets. Overall (d 0 to 28), pigs fed dried porcine solubles had improved ADG (421 vs. 383 g) and G:F (0.77 vs. 0.73) compared with pigs fed the control diet and had improved G:F (0.77 vs. 0.74) compared with pigs fed the combination of fermented soybean meal and fish meal. In Exp. 2, nursery pigs (n = 350; PIC C22 × 1050; 6.1 kg initial BW and 7 d after weaning) were fed 1) a control diet containing no specialty protein sources and the control diet with 2) 3% fish meal, 3) 6% fish meal, 4) 3.75% fermented soybean meal, 5) 7.50% fermented soybean meal, 6) a combination of 1.88% fermented soybean meal and 1.88% dried porcine solubles, or 7) a combination of 3.75% fermented soybean meal and 3.75% dried porcine solubles. There were 10 replications with 5 pigs per pen. Experimental diets were fed from d 0 to 14, and then all pigs were fed a common diet without specialty protein sources for 21 d. From d 0 to 14, pigs fed increasing fish meal had increased ADFI. Pigs fed increasing fermented soybean meal had improved G:F. Pigs fed the combination of fermented soybean meal and dried porcine solubles had improved ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed diets containing fish meal and had improved ADG and ADFI compared with pigs fed diets containing fermented soybean meal. Overall (d 0 to 35), pigs fed diets with increasing amounts of fermented soybean meal had improved G:F. Feeding nursery pigs diets containing dried porcine solubles, either alone or in combination with fermented soybean meal, can improve growth performance compared with those fed high concentrations of soybean meal or fish meal.

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Efficacy of commercial enzymes in diets containing various concentrations and sources of dried distillers grains with solubles for nursery pigs

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In 2 experiments, 530 pigs were used to evaluate the effects of adding commercial enzymes to diets containing dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) on pig growth performance. In the first experiment, 180 pigs (9.0 kg initial BW) were fed a cornsoybean meal-based control diet, a diet containing 30% corn DDGS, or the 30% DDGS diet with 0.05% of enzyme A, B, or C. There were 6 pigs per pen and 6 pens per treatment. Overall (d 0 to 27), neither DDGS nor enzyme addition increased ADG and G:F. Pigs fed enzyme B had decreased ADG as a result of a tendency for decreased ADFI compared with control pigs or pigs fed DDGS without added enzyme.  In Exp. 2, 350 pigs (11.0 kg initial BW) were fed 1 of 10 dietary treatments. Pigs were fed a control corn-soybean meal-based diet or the control diet containing 15 or 30% DDGS from 3 sources (corn, sorghum 1, or sorghum 2). Diets containing 30% DDGS were fed with or without the same enzyme (enzyme A) as Exp. 1. There were 5 pigs per pen and 7 pens per treatment. Overall (d 7 to 28), there were no enzyme × DDGS source interactions observed. Corn DDGS did not influence ADG, ADFI, or G:F. Sorghum DDGS reduced G:F, with no difference between sorghum DDGS sources. Adding the commercial enzyme to the 30% DDGS diets did not improve performance. In summary, feeding diets with sorghum DDGS resulted in poorer G:F with no change in ADG compared with feeding the control diet or diets containing corn DDGS. Adding the enzymes used in this study to corn-soybean meal-based diets containing 30% DDGS did not improve growth performance.

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Efficacy of different commercial phytase enzymes and development of an available phosphorus release curve for Escherichia coli-derived phytases in nursery pigs

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In 2 experiments, a total of 184 pigs (PIC, initial BW of 10.3 and 9.7 kg for Exp. 1 and 2, respectively) were used to develop an available P (aP) release curve for commercially available Escherichia coli- derived phytases. In both experiments, pigs were fed a corn-soybean meal basal diet (0.06% aP) and 2 diets with added inorganic P (iP) from monocalcium phosphate (Exp. 1: 0.075 and 0.15% aP; Exp. 2: 0.07 and 0.14% aP) to develop a standard curve. In Exp. 1, 100, 175, 250, or 500 phytase units (FTU)/kg of OptiPhos 2000 or 200, 350, 500, or 1,000 FTU/kg of Phyzyme XP were added to the basal diet. In Exp. 2, 250, 500, 750, or 1,000 FTU/kg of OptiPhos 2000; 500, 1,000, or 1,500 FTU/kg of Phyzyme XP; or 1,850 or 3,700 FTU/ kg of Ronozyme P were added to the basal diet. One FTU was defined as the amount of enzyme required to release 1 μmol of iP per minute from sodium phytate at 37°C. For all phytase products, the manufacturer-guaranteed phytase activities were used in diet formulation. All diets were analyzed for phytase activity using both the Phytex and AOAC methods. Pigs were blocked by sex and BW and allotted to individual pens with 8 pens per treatment. Pigs were killed on d 21, and fibulas were collected and analyzed for bone ash. In both experiments, increasing iP improved G:F and percentage bone ash. Pigs fed increasing OptiPhos had improved percentage bone ash, as did pigs fed increasing Phyzyme XP. In Exp. 2, increasing Ronozyme P improved percentage bone ash. Using analyzed values from the AOAC method and percentage bone ash as the response variable, an aP release curve was developed for up to 1,000 FTU/kg of E. coli-derived phytases (OptiPhos 2000 and Phyzyme XP) in P-deficient diets. The prediction equation was Y = –0.000000125X2 + 0.000236X + 0.016, where Y = aP release (%) and X = analyzed phytase (FTU/kg) in the diet.

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Conjugated linoleic acid differentially regulates fat deposition in backfat and longissimus muscle of finishing pigs

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This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of extracellular CLA on proliferation and differentiation of cultured adipocytes and its dietary supplementation on backfat and intramuscular fat deposition in finishing pigs. Seven-day-old Duroc × Landrace × Large White pigs were killed to obtain adipocytes for culture. Adding 3 forms of CLA (cis-9, trans-11 CLA, trans-10, cis-12 CLA, or CLA mixture) at concentrations of 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, and 400 μM to culture medium for 10 d increased cell differentiation. In addition, 3 forms of CLA enhanced cell proliferation at 50 to 350 μM and inhibited cell proliferation at a concentration of 400 μM. Seventy-two Duroc × Landrace × Large White crossbred gilts weighing 60.7 kg were randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 dietary treatments (control, 1.25% CLA, and 2.5% CLA). The pigs were slaughtered at 100.0kg. Dietary CLA increased lean percentage (3.5 to 4.7%), intramuscular fat content, and shear force, but reduced 10th- and first-rib backfat depth and lipid oxidation. The adipocyte diameter in backfat or LM was not affected by CLA. Supplemented CLA reduced Δ9-desaturase activity in backfat and LM, as well as fatty acid synthetase activity and lipoprotein lipase activity in backfat, but enhanced adipocyte fatty acid binding protein mRNA content in LM. These data indicate that dietary CLA regulates fat deposition by affecting adipocyte proliferation, adipocyte differentiation, gene expression, and key metabolic enzymes of lipid metabolism.

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The effect of diet composition on tryptophan requirement of young piglets

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 The aim of the study was to evaluate the requirement for Trp in relation to diet composition in piglets in the period after weaning (BW range of 9 to 24 kg). Two Trp-deficient [relative to the Dutch (CVB, 1996) and NRC (NRC, 1998) requirement values for piglets of 10 to 20 kg of BW] basal diets were formulated: one based on corn and soybean meal and a second one based on wheat, barley, soybean meal, peas, and whey powder [10.0 g/kg of apparent ileal digestible (AID) Lys; 1.4 g/kg of AID Trp; 1.5 g/kg of standardized ileal digestible (SID) Trp]. Both basal diets were supplemented with 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 g of l-Trp per kg of diet to obtain diets with 1.7, 2.0, and 2.3 g of AID Trp per kg (1.8, 2.1, and 2.4 g of SID Trp per kg), respectively. Each of the 8 treatments was evaluated in 8 replicates (pens with 8 male or female piglets). Average daily feed intake, ADG, and G:F were measured as response criteria. Over the 28-d experimental period, ADG and G:F were greater for the treatments on the wheat/barley diet compared with those on the corn/ soybean meal and were increased by the level of Trp in the diet. Average daily feed intake was only increased by the level of Trp supplementation. Increasing the Trp level increased ADFI for the corn/soybean meal diet up to 2.3 g of AID Trp per kg (2.4 g of SID Trp per kg) and up to 2.0 g of AID Trp per kg (2.1 g of SID Trp per kg) in the wheat/barley diet. For both diet types supplementation of free l-Trp increased the G:F up to 1.7 g of AID Trp per kg (1.8 g of SID Trp per kg). Nonlinear regression analysis of the response curves for ADFI using an exponential model for estimating a requirement value for Trp (defined as the Trp level resulting in 95% of the maximum response) revealed a requirement estimate of 2.3 g of AID Trp per kg for the corn/soybean mealbased diet and 2.1 g of AID Trp per kg for the wheat/ barley-based diet, equivalent to 2.4 and 2.2 g of SID Trp per kg of diet, respectively. For ADG, a requirement estimate of 2.1 g of AID Trp per kg for both types of diets was derived, equivalent to 2.2 g of SID Trp per kg of diet. The Trp requirement for young piglets seems to be greater than indicated by some commonly used recommendations and does not seem largely dependent on diet ingredient composition.

Amino acid digestibility and energy concentration of high-protein corn dried distillers grains and high-protein sorghum dried distillers grains with solubles for swine

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A study was conducted to determine the AA digestibility and energy concentration of a specialized high-protein corn distillers dried grains (HPCDDG) product and a high-protein sorghum dried distillers grains with solubles (HPS-DDGS) product. Six growing barrows (BW = 22.7 kg) were surgically fitted with T-cannulas at the terminal ileum and allotted randomly to 3 treatments in a crossover design with 3 periods. The treatment diets were 1) 67% HPC-DDG and 2) 50% HPS-DDGS as the sole protein sources, and 3) an N-free diet for determining basal endogenous AA loss. All diets contained 0.25% chromic oxide as an inert marker. Digesta and fecal samples were collected and analyzed for AA and energy concentrations. After chemical analysis, standardized and apparent ileal digestible (SID and AID, respectively) AA and GE were determined for each coproduct. The DE, ME, and NE values for HPC-DDG and HPS-DDGS also were calculated. The chemical composition of HPC-DDG and HPS-DDGS on a DM basis was 40.8% CP, 5.4% fat, 22.9% ADF, 36.6% NDF, 0.04% Ca, and 0.42% P and 48.2% CP, 3.1% fat, 17.5% ADF, 20.4% NDF, 0.13% Ca, and 0.82% P, respectively. The DM content of HPC-DDG and HPS-DDGS was 89.50 and 91.88%, respectively. Analyzed AA content of HPC-DDG was greater than that of traditional corn DDGS. The Lys content of HPC-DDG was 1.36% (DM basis), resulting in a Lys-to-CP ratio of 3.2%. In HPS-DDGS, most AA were present in greater proportions than in HPC-DDG or conventional sorghum DDGS. The HPS-DDGS Lys content was 1.7% (DM basis), equivalent to a Lys-to- CP ratio of 3.5%. In HPC-DDG, the AID for Lys, Met, Thr, and Trp were 65.9, 87.0, 72.8, and 76.2%, respectively, and SID values were 67.8, 87.5, 75.0, and 78.6%, respectively. For HPS-DDGS, the AID for Lys, Met, Thr, and Trp were 51.9, 73.0, 60.6, and 71.7%, respectively, and SID values were 53.7, 73.8, 63.0, and 73.8%, respectively. The GE, DE, and calculated ME and NE values were 5,293, 3,703, 3,426, and 2,131kcal/ kg of DM, respectively, for HPC-DDG and 5,108, 3,878, 3,549, and 2,256 kcal/kg of DM, respectively, for HPSDDGS. Results indicate that both coproducts are well suited for use in swine diets and that actual AA digestibility values and calculated energy concentrations can now be used in swine diet formulation.

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An application of change-point recursive models to the relationship between litter size and number of stillborns in pigs

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We developed and implemented change-point recursive models and compared them with a linear recursive model and a standard mixed model (SMM), in the scope of the relationship between litter size (LS) and number of stillborns (NSB) in pigs. The proposed approach allows us to estimate the point of change in multiple-segment modeling of a nonlinear relationship between phenotypes. We applied the procedure to a data set provided by a commercial Large White selection nucleus. The data file consisted of LS and NSB records of 4,462 parities. The results of the analysis clearly identified the location of the change points between different structural regression coefficients. The magnitude of these coefficients increased with LS, indicating an increasing incidence of LS on the NSB ratio. However, posterior distributions of correlations were similar across subpopulations (defined by the change points on LS), except for those between residuals. The heritability estimates of NSB did not present differences between recursive models. Nevertheless, these heritabilities were greater than those obtained for SMM (0.05) with a posterior probability of 85%. These results suggest a nonlinear relationship between LS and NSB, which supports the adequacy of a change-point recursive model for its analysis. Furthermore, the results from model comparisons support the use of recursive models. However, the adequacy of the different recursive models depended on the criteria used: the linear recursive model was preferred on account of its smallest deviance value, whereas nonlinear recursive models provided a better fit and predictive ability based on the cross-validation approach. 

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