Effects of feeding whole crop rice combined with soybean oil on growth performance, carcass quality characteristics, and fatty acids profile of Longissimus muscle and adipose tissue of pigs

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This study was conducted to determine the effects of soybean oil supplementation on growth performance, carcass characteristics and fatty acids composition in muscle and adipose tissue of pigs fed on whole crop rice (WCR). Forty-eight pigs (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire, 36 kg) were randomly assigned to four treatments with three replications each. The diets included the ground WCR at levels of 0, 8, 12 or 16% and supplemented with soybean-oil at levels of 0, 2, 3 and 4 %, accordingly replacing the maize, and designated as control C, T1, T2 and T3, respectively. All pigs at about 90 kg were slaughtered to determine carcass quality and fatty acid composition. In growing period, the daily feed intake was significantly lower for pigs fed the diets containing WCR than for those on the control diets. The pigs on T3 diet had significantly lower average daily gain than those on C, T1 or T2 diets. The feed conversion ratio was significantly lower in pigs on T1 or T2 diets than on the control.No significant difference was found in daily feed intake, average daily gain and feed conversion ratio among pigs on different diets in finishing period. The carcass characteristics did not differ among different treatments. The water holding capacity of loin muscle was significantly lower for pigs fed diets containing WCR than for those on the control. There were no significant differences in meat color, marbling, pH and cooking loss among pigs on different diets. The concentration of saturated fatty acid (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) in back fat decreased significantly with the inclusion of soybean oil in the diet. The same trend was showed in Longissimus muscle, and SFA in T1 and MUFA in T3 were significantly lower than those in the control, respectively. The polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-6 PUFA and n-3 PUFA were significantly higher in the Longissimus muscle and backfat of pigs fed diet with soybean oil and WCR than those in the control. The Longissimus muscle and back fat of pigs fed the diet with soybean oil and WCR were significantly higher in PUFA/SFA and lower in n-6/n-3 ratio than those of the control, with exception of the ratio of n-6/n-3 in muscle for T1. The study suggests that whole crop rice could be used as a feed ingredient for growing-finishing pigs with soybean-oil supplementation and that the treatment including soybean oil would improve the fatty acid profile of the carcass as food for humans.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/livsci

Effect of selection for residual feed intake on feeding behavior and daily feed intake patterns in Yorkshire swine

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Residual feed intake (RFI) is a measure of feed efficiency defined as the difference between observed and predicted feed intake based on average requirements for growth and maintenance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of selection for decreased RFI on feeding behavior traits and to estimate their relationships with RFI. Three data sets from the 4th and 5th generations of a selection experiment with a line selected for reduced RFI (LRFI) and a randomly selected control line (CTRL) were analyzed. Lines were mixed in pens of 16 and evaluated for feeding behavior traits obtained from a single-space electronic feeder over a growing period of ~3 mo before ~115 kg. The following traits were evaluated as averages over the entire test period and over the first and second half of the test period: number of visits per day and hour; occupation time per day, visit, and hour; feed intake (FI) per day, visit, and hour; and FI rate per visit. Models used included fixed effects of line and feeder, covariates of on-test age and FI per day, and random effects of pen, on-test group, sire, and litter. Repeated measures models were used to analyze feeding patterns during the day. The LRFI pigs had significantly less FI per day than CTRL pigs for all 3 data sets. With adjustment for FI per day, line differences of all traits were in the same direction for all 3 data sets but differed in significance and size. Feed intake per visit and hour and visits per day and hour did not differ between lines, but the trend was for LRFI pigs to have fewer visits, in particular during peak eating times. The LRFI pigs had a greater feeding rate and less occupation time per day, visit, and hour than CTRL pigs, but this was not significant for all data sets. Correlations of RFI with FI per day and visit and visits per day were positive. Average daily gain was positively correlated with FI per day and visit and occupation time per visit but negatively correlated with visits per day. Feed intake per day was positively correlated with backfat. In conclusion, feed efficiency may be affected by FI behavior because selection for decreased RFI has resulted in pigs that spend less time eating and eat faster.

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Drinking behavior in nursery pigs: Determining the accuracy between an automatic water meter versus human observers

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Assimilating accurate behavioral events over a long period can be labor-intensive and relatively expensive. If an automatic device could accurately record the duration and frequency for a given behavioral event, it would be a valuable alternative to the traditional use of human observers for behavioral studies. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the accuracy in the time spent at the waterer and the number of visits to the waterer by individually housed nursery pigs between human observers scoring video files using Observer software (OBS) and an automatic water meter Hobo (WM, control) affixed onto the waterline. Eleven PIC USA genotype gilts (22d of age; 6.5kg of BW) were housed individually in pens with ad libitum access to a corn-based starter ration and one nipple waterer. Behavior was collected on d 0 (day of weaning), 7, and 14 of the trial using 1 color camera positioned over 4 attached pens and a RECO-204 DVR at 1 frame per second. For the OBS method, 2 experienced observers recorded drinking behavior from the video files, which was defined as when the gilt placed her mouth over the nipple waterer. Data were analyzed using nonparametric methods and the general linear model and regression procedures in SAS. The experimental unit was the individual pen housing 1 gilt. The GLM model included the method of observation (WM vs. OBS) and time (24 h) as variables, and the gilt nested within method was used as the error term. Gilts consumed more water on d 14 than on d 0. The time of day affected the number of visits and the time spent at the waterer regardless of the method. However, the OBS method underestimated the number of visits to the waterer (3.48 visits/h for OBS vs. 4.94 for WM) and overestimated the time spent at the waterer (22.6 s/h for OBS vs. 13.9 for WM) compared with WM. The relationship between the 2 methods for prediction of time spent at the waterer and number of visits made by the gilts was weak. Collectively, these data indicate that the use of the traditional OBS method for quantifying drinking behavior in pigs can be misleading. Quantifying drinking behavior and perhaps other behavioral events via the OBS method must be more accurately validated. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

The effect of selection for residual feed intake on general behavioral activity and the occurrence of lesions in Yorkshire gilts

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The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of selection for improved residual feed intake on behavior, activity, and lesion scores in gilts in their home pen. A total of 192 gilts were used, 96 from a line that had been selected for decreased residual feed intake over 5 generations (LRFI) and 96 from a randomly bred control line. Gilts were housed in 12 pens (16 gilts/pen; 0.82 m2/gilt) containing 8 gilts from each line in a conventional grow-finish unit. Twelve hours of video footage were collected on the day of placement and then every 4 wk for 3 more observational periods. Video was scored using a 10-min instantaneous scan sampling technique for 4 postures (standing, lying, sitting, and locomotion) and 1 behavior (at drinker). Categories of active (standing, locomotion, and at drinker) and inactive (sitting and lying) were also created. Lesion scores were collected 24 h after behavior collection had begun. The body of a gilt was divided into 4 regions, with each region receiving a score of 0 (0 lesions) to 3 (5+ lesions). All statistical analyses used Proc Mixed of SAS. Data were analyzed separately for the day of placement and the subsequent 3 rounds. General activity was summarized on a percentage basis by each posture and behavior and subjected to an arcsine square root transformation to normalize data and stabilize variance. Analysis was performed on each behavior and posture. Lesion scores for each region of the body were analyzed as repeated measures. There were no differences between genetic lines for all postures and the behavior at drinker on the day of placement. However, over subsequent rounds it was observed that LRFI gilts spent less time standing, more time sitting, and were less active overall. Gilts from the LRFI line had decreased lesion scores on the day after placement. However, over subsequent rounds there were no differences between the genetic lines. In conclusion, on the day of placement there were no postural, behavior, or general activity differences between genetic lines, but LRFI gilts had decreased lesion scores. Behavioral differences were observed between genetic lines over subsequent rounds, with LRFI gilts becoming less active, but there were no differences in lesion scores. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Endocrine response of gilts to various common stressors: A comparison of indicators and methods of analysis

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The first aim of the present study was to determine whether various common events encountered by pigs in commercial farms or experimental units induce activation of the sympathetic and hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axes. The second aim was to compare the efficiency of various indicators and methods of analysis to detect the occurrence of a stress reaction. Responses to two blood sampling methods, immobilization by snaring, brief electric shocks, loud noise, ear tagging, tattooing, biopsy, pen relocation or delayed feeding time have been evaluated. Series of blood and saliva samplings (from 10 min before to 120 min after stressor application) were collected for each stressor on a total of 8 catheterized sows. Plasma glucose, lactate, cortisol and ACTH levels as well as salivary cortisol were measured. Acute increases of cortisol or ACTH (at least at time points+5 or+15 min) were observed for intense noise, electric shocks, ear tagging, tattooing, biopsy, cava blood sampling, snaring and pen relocation. Snaring, relocation and vena cava blood sampling generated longer stress responses whereas delayed meal and tail blood sampling had no influence. Plasma lactate was also significantly increased in several time-points after stressor application contrarily to plasma glucose. Comparison of successive time points with the starting basal level and comparison with the control group were more sensitive methods to detect a stress response to moderate stressors like electric shocks and tattooing, than comparing the area under the curve. These data confirmed that salivary cortisol is a good indicator to measure the HPA response to a stressor, provided that post-treatment levels can be compared with pre-treatment levels.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00319384

Dry sows in dynamic groups: An investigation of social behaviour when introducing new sows

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In the investigation 22 groups of sows (with a total number of 73 sows, being partially observed repeatedly) were consecutively observed for 96 h with the aid of video technology after the introduction of 5 new sows into a group of 10 resident sows, thus creating a dynamic group of 15 animals. The aim was to analyse the frequency of agonistic interactions (AI) and the lying behaviour of new and resident sows. Additionally, the lying behaviour three weeks after the introduction of new sows was recorded in half of the 22 groups. The number of AI per group was 45.2 on the first day and decreased significantly to 30.0 AI/group on the fourth day after the introduction. Between 82.4 and 87.9% of all AI included the participation of at least one new sow. Including all days of observation 2.3 AI per dyad occurred between resident and new sows (n = 50 dyads), 0.5 AI/dyad within the subgroup of resident sows (n = 45 dyads) and 1 AI/dyad within the subgroup of new sows (n = 10 dyads). Altogether 12,454 lying events were recorded from which 6134 occurred clearly either next to a member of the own subgroup (resident and resident, new and new) or next to a member of the other subgroup (resident and new or vice versa). On the 1st day new sows showed significantly more lying events than resident sows (21.2/24 h, 14.9/24 h, respectively). By the 21st day this number decreased significantly (13.9/24 h) no longer showing significant differences to the number observed for resident sows (14.2/24 h). On the 1st day resident as well as new sows lay down significantly more often next to a member of the own subgroup (new sows 94.3%; resident sows 96.8%). The number of lying events next to a member of the own subgroup decreased significantly within 3 weeks after the introduction of new sows, indicating the advancing integration of new sows into the dynamic group (new: 1st day 94.3%, 21st day 46.0%; resident: 1st day 96.8%, 21st day 74.6%).

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues

Evidence for residence-induced enhancement of aggressiveness in the non-territorial pig

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Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are only territorial during the peri-parturient period and when young compete for access to teats. In other species, territorial defence is affected by contextual factors including resource quality. Territoriality could be stimulated in species such as pigs by artificial mixing and intensive housing. Test pigs were introduced to a novel opponent for 5 min on consecutive days (days 1 and 2) in two locations (home pen of the test pig (P) or a neutral arena (A)) in a randomised block design. On day 1, animals tested in their home pen were more likely to initiate an escalated attack (proportion of pigs 0.43 vs 0.19 in the pen and neutral arena, P < 0.01). A shorter latency to attack on day 2 in the PP (pen on both days) and PA (pen then arena) treatments suggested that a previous encounter in the home pen affected later aggressiveness. The time spent engaged in non-escalated aggressive behaviours (parallel walking, pushing, knocking and biting) with the opponent was similar in the two environments. Some capacity for territorial defence through escalated aggression and the enhancement of subsequent aggressiveness appears to occur in pigs when in their home pen. The suppression of escalated aggression in the neutral arena by handling and environmental exploration cannot be discounted, but appears not to have affected the occurrence of non-escalated aggression. The mixing of pigs in an occupied pen is likely to enhance escalated aggression from the occupants without reducing that from the intruders and should be avoided.

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues

Agonistic behaviour after mixing in pigs under commercial farm conditions

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The aim of the study was to investigate agonistic behaviour of pigs after regrouping pigs under commercial sow farm conditions. The behavioural patterns were observed over a 48-h period, directly after weaning and 40 days later. Agonistic interactions were analysed by noting the times (start and finish), the aggressor/receiver and the winner/loser of a fight. Differences in agonistic behaviour within and between the two age groups were recorded. The median number of fights per pig was 40.0 and 6.5, respectively, and varied between 0 and 139 fights. A circadian rhythm for the number of fights per pig and hour was shown for both age groups. A dominance index (DI) was calculated to examine possible relations between the agonistic behaviour shown and the dominance of an individual pig. The DI was defined as the ratio of wins minus defeats divided by the sum of wins, defeats and stand-off outcomes. Dominant pigs (DI > 0) were engaged in more agonistic interactions, had a longer total fight time and initiated more fights than subordinate pigs. Significant correlations were found between the overall fight time and the dominance index. Potential coherences between agonistic behaviour and the number of skin lesions were investigated with a lesion score (LS). The LS ranked from 0 to 4 and was determined at the beginning and at the end of the observation period. The analyses of the LS showed significant preferences for the front third of the body. However, unambiguous findings were only made concerning the older age group. Growing pigs with an increased LS after 48 h had more fights per pig, a longer overall fight time and initiated more fights (p < 0.05) compared to pigs showing a lower or unchanged LS. In conclusion, the applied dominance index and lesion score are feasible methods to analyse fighting behaviour under commercial sow farm conditions. Potential relationships between agonistic behaviour and growth or reproductive performance should be analysed in further investigations. It might be beneficial to consider agonistic behaviour in pig breeding. In this context, the presented approaches are simple tools to measure agonistic pig behaviour.

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues

Genetic and environmental effects on piglet survival and maternal behaviour of the farrowing sow

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There is growing external pressure to abolish the farrowing crate, however alternative farrowing systems need to equal or surpass the performance (i.e. piglet survival) of more restrictive systems. In order to achieve consistent improvement in piglet survival genetic selection strategies targeting specific survival traits could be used. One of the key components of survival in alternative, loose-housed farrowing systems is maternal behaviour and understanding the characteristics of sows that influence survival in such environments should be an essential component when developing new breeding indices. In this study 65 gilts and their piglets (757) from two genetic selection lines, High postnatal Survival (HS) or Control (C), were studied in both indoor loose-housed and outdoor farrowing systems. The influence of genetics and environment on piglet survival and maternal characteristics was studied. Genotype affected total mortality at a piglet level in the outdoor system (C: 17.90% (±3.23) vs. HS: 12.21% (±3.46)), but there was no effect in the indoor loose-housed environment (C: 12.29% (±2.69) vs. HS: 14.86% (±3.18)). Genotype influenced maternal characteristics, with C gilts in both environments being significantly more likely to crush their piglets when changing posture during farrowing. High Survival gilts in the indoor environment were aggressive towards their offspring, and were the only genotype to display savaging behaviour. This suggests a genetic effect on environmental sensitivity and thus, in order to make effective improvements it is important to estimate genetic parameters (both behavioural and physiological) under the conditions in which the animals will be kept.

Breed differences in pig temperament scores during a performance test and their phenotypic relationship with performance

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Nucleus populations of Chester White, Duroc, Landrace, and Yorkshire boars and gilts were used to estimate breed differences in temperament and the relationship with performance. Adjusted backfat, adjusted loin depth, days to 113.4 kilograms (DAYS), estimated percent fat-free lean (LEAN), and three temperament scores: load score, scale score, and vocal score were recorded, on a scale of 1 (calm) to 5 (highly excited), during a performance test. Logistic regression for temperament scores included fixed effects of breed, sex, contemporary group (barn-farm-test date), and body weight as a covariate was used. The order that a pig was loaded into the scale, within pen, was included as a fixed effect for load score. After initial analysis, it was determined that vocal score was best described as two categories, vocal or nonvocal, and was reanalyzed accordingly. Linear mixed models for backfat, loin depth, DAYS, and LEAN included fixed effects of breed, sex, and load score, scale score, or vocal score. Growth rate was adjusted to 113.4 kg, while backfat and loin depth were adjusted to 113.4 kg through regression on mean body weight of the respective breed. The odds of increased load score were greater for Landrace than Duroc and Yorkshire respectively. Landrace had a greater probability of a higher scale and vocal scores compared to Chester White, Duroc and Yorkshire. Yorkshire had greater odds of increased load score, scale score, and vocal score than Duroc. Chester White had greater odds of increased load score and scale score than Duroc and Yorkshire, respectively. Chester White were 1.66 times more likely to have a higher vocal scores than Duroc. Phenotypic correlations for scale score with load score, vocal score, backfat, loin depth, DAYS, and LEAN were 0.13, 0.32, −0.15, −0.07, 0.10 and 0.17, respectively. Landrace were more excited and vocal in the scale than Chester White, Durocs and Yorkshire. Landrace were more difficult to load into the scale than Durocs and Yorkshire. Chester White were more active in the scale than Durocs and Yorshire, and more vocal than Durocs. Yorkshire were harder to load, more active and vocal than Durocs. It was concluded that temperament differs between breeds, and pigs with lower temperament scores were fatter, had greater loin depth and grew faster. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/livsci