Continuous Vagus Nerve Stimulation Effects on the Gut-Brain Axis in Swine

Posted in: Welfare by admin on January 1, 2007 | No Comments

Influence of different types of environmental enrichment on the behaviour of finishing pigs in two different housing systems 2. Ratio of pigs to enrichment

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Exploration is a biologically important behaviour used to gain information about the surrounding environment and available resources (Wemelsfelder and Birke, 1997). Pigs have developed foraging strategies that depend on high levels of exploratory behaviour involving the mouth and snout (Arey, 1993). Current EU legislation (Directive 2001/93/EC) requires that ‘‘. . . pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities, such as straw, hay, wood, sawdust, mushroom compost, peat, . . .’’. Since the use of most particulate rooting materials in slatted systems can cause difficulties for slurry management, it is necessary to identify other forms of enrichment that meet the requirements of both the animal and the producer within the confines of the system as failure to provide adequate enrichment has been implicated in the development of adverse behaviours. In pens without bedding, exploratory behaviour is redirected towards pen-mates (Beattie et al., 2000; Kelly et al., 2000; Lyons et al., 1995) and pen components (Guy et al., 2002; Lyons et al., 1995). Tail-biting behaviour is also more prevalent under these conditions (Van de Weerd et al., 2005; Scott et al., in press). The aims of this experiment were to assess the effects of: (1) environmental enrichment with either straw bedding or a hanging manipulable toy and (2) the ratio of pigs to environmental enrichment when in the form of a hanging toy, on the behavioural responses and synchrony of behaviour in finishing pigs. One thousand and twenty four (Large White x Landrace) x Large White pigs were housed contemporarily, in 32 pen groups of 32 pigs (16 pens in each housing system), in matched straw-bedded (ST) or fully slatted (FS) buildings from 35 kg to slaughter at 104 kg liveweight. In the ST building, only the straw bedding enriched half of the pens and half received additional enrichment in the form of a single hanging ‘toy’. In the FS house, half of the pens were provided with the same hanging toy, whilst the remaining pens were provided with four such toys. Time spent in toy manipulation was <2% in both housing systems, and did not differ in comparison of the same toy in different housing systems, or the different numbers of the toy per pen within the FS house. Manipulation of straw bedding occupied a much higher proportion of time (21%). In the absence of straw, significantly more investigatory behaviours were directed towards pen components, with a similar tendency in behaviours directed at pen-mates. It was concluded that environmental enrichment in the form of a hanging toy failed to provide the same level of occupation as seen with straw bedding. Since the ratio of pigs to enrichment object had no effect on the level of enrichment manipulation, or on pig or pen-directed behaviours, this difference cannot be attributed to spatial limitation. Functional enrichment should occupy animals to a great extent to prevent them from performing adverse behaviours; therefore the reasons behind the difference in occupation time between straw manipulation and enrichment object interaction require further investigation.

Hyper-Prolificacy and Acceptable Post-Natal Development – A Possible Contradiction

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Although the components of litter size (ovulation rate, embryonic survival and uterine capacity) responsive to genetic selection are well established. However, the reality in existing “hyper-prolific” sows is that increased selection pressure for numbers born has led to indirect negative effects of intra-uterine crowding, reprogramming of fetal development, less efficient post-natal growth performance and adverse effects on carcass quality at slaughter. Therefore, a considerable amount of the variation in growth performance after birth may be pre-programmed during fetal development in the uterus (see Foxcroft and Town, 2004). The effects of prenatal programming on postnatal performance are not limited to effects on muscle development and growth. Harding et al. (2006) showed that the organs most notably affected by pre-natal programming in stillborn pigs with low birth weight were the heart, liver and spleen, with obvious implications for post-natal health outcomes generally. Both birth weight of the individual pig and between litter variation in birth weight are of considerable economic interest for pork production, as post-natal growth in the pre-weaning, nursery and grow-finish stages of production is impaired in low, compared with high, birth weight pigs (see review of Foxcroft et al., 2007). Available results indicate that pigs of low birth weight have poorer carcass and meat quality. Unfortunately, although selection for improved prolificacy has resulted in an increase of litter size at birth in most breeding populations, this has been associated with increased within-litter variation in piglet birth weight, as well as an overall decrease in average birth weight of the litter. The proportion of live-born vs. dead-born pigs within the litters of one population of hyper-prolific French sows suggests that the growth potential of the live-born pigs that survive to weaning will be seriously affected by intra-uterine competition with the increasing number of fetuses born dead. A better appreciation of the characteristics of prolific dam-lines is clearly needed. This information, and an increasing focus on the need to maximize total net revenues per sow in terms of the value of saleable pork products relative to the input costs involved per kg of pork sold, should drive the management of appropriate terminal dam-lines in the future. Ultimately, selection of sows with increased uterine capacity offers the best opportunity for increasing the number of pigs born per litter, without compromising the post-natal growth performance of these pigs. A comparison between the largest and smallest pigs within a litter has most frequently been used to study impacts of birth weight on postnatal growth performance. However, limitations in functional uterine capacity in hyper-prolific sows are predicted to result in prenatal programming effects on entire litters (Foxcroft et al., 2007). If this assumption is correct, then the origins of increasing variance in postnatal growth performance needs to be clarified as the basis for developing selection and production strategies that effectively address the problem. Innovative approaches to addressing the problems, as well as the opportunities presented by pre-natal programming of post-natal performance, will likely be the benchmark of the most profitable pork production systems in the next decade. In particular, these approaches will need to address the possible conflict between continued selection for hyper-prolificacy and increased variance in post-natal growth performance.

Guidelines For Estimating Weaner Pig (Nursery) Costs 5 – 23 kg Based on marketing 35,308 pigs

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The Ethanol Industry, Dried Distiller's Grains With Solubles (DDGS), And Their Impact On Pork Production

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In the USA corn supply is increasingly being fed to the ethanol industry, which could very well create a battle between the livestock industry and the ethanol industry. The increased production of ethanol results in increased corn price, increased corn acreage, decreased corn exports, and increased feed use of ethanol by-products (DDGS). DDGS is high in energy and can be a good partial substitute for corn in swine diets. The high digestibility of phosphorus works well with the fact that there is less heat damage to DDGS, which increases lysine digestibility. It is thought that DDGS may improve gut health, and sows fed DDGS weaned more pigs per litter and the pigs had a slightly improved growth rate. However, DDGS does have some limitations. Because of the high fibre content and low liquid content, manure output increases slightly. Because they are 10% corn oil, carcass quality decreases. Feeding DDGS could potentially reduce palatability, feed intake, and growth rate. Studies are currently being done on other ethanol by-product uses.

Starch and energy digestibility in weaned pigs fed extruded zero-tannin faba bean starch and wheat as an energy source

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Digestion of extruded
starch is poorly characterized. Two diets containing wheat or faba bean starch were extruded individually or combined
50:50 (wt/wt) and fed to weaned pigs. Ileal starch digestion tended to be higher (P<0.10) for the extruded wheat diet than the extruded faba bean diets, while total tract digestibility of starch and energy was higher (P<0.05) for the two extruded faba bean starch diets than the extruded wheat diet. Feed intake tended to be higher (P<0.10) for extruded faba bean starch diet, but final body weight was not affected by extruded starch source. The in vivo kinetics of starch and energy digestion differed between extruded wheat and faba bean starch diets.

Disinfection of Swine Barns

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A number of important criteria must be considered when selecting an appropriate and effective disinfectant. Disinfectants should: be free of strong and objectionable odours; not be corrosive; not remain strongly toxic after their application nor excessively irritating; be effective at ordinary temperatures when diluted with water, and readily mix with water; be packaged in such a form and concentration that they are easy to transport, mix and economical to use; and have a high fast-acting antimicrobial potency even in heavily contaminated areas. Some widely used disinfectants include formaldehyde, chlorine (bleach), quaternary ammonium compounds, phenolic disinfectants, hydrogen peroxide, virkon, alcohols, chlorhexidine, iodine, and iodophors. The application of some of these disinfectants may mean the careful calibration of high-pressure washer equipment in order to achieve the desired concentration. The following is a summary of the steps to properly clean and disinfect a premises:
1.All manure, litter, and unused feed should be removed.
2.All surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned with a high pressure (preferably steam) washer with a good detergent, including feeding utensils.
3.All surfaces should be sprayed with a liberal amount of appropriate disinfectant.
4.In some cases, it may be necessary to rinse the disinfectant off all surfaces.
5.If spraying cannot adequately disinfect the premises, consideration should be given to fumigation.
6.Allow the facility to dry and remain vacant for several days before restocking

Better Handling, Better Pork

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Major factors impacting behavioral and physiological responses of the pig during handling and transport include genetics, slaughter weight, environmental conditions (temperature and humidity), health status, marketing strategy, time off feed, pre-transport experiences, facility design, and the nature of the handling method. (Ritter et al., 2005). Even the “best” handling and transportation conditions will cause significant changes in the pigs’ physiology, their behavior and consequently negatively impact pig performance and the quality of the pork delivered to the consuming public. US Industry statistics report an average Dead on Arrival (DOA) at processing plants for 2004 of 0.23% of pigs marketed. This results in a total lost opportunity of $2.44 US per finisher head per year. However, these direct financial impacts represent only a small fraction of the true cost of marketing and pig transportation stress. There are many other lost efficiencies, increased costs and risks associated with pig transportation. Fatigued and dead pigs disrupt the standard animal flow resulting in reduced processing plant and transportation efficiencies. Therefore many processors are now not only charging the cost of a DOA animal back to the producer, but are also charging the cost for an animal received in a compromised state regardless of whether the animal is processed for consumption or rendered as a byproduct. These costs and losses in efficiencies are all secondary to the ethical obligations and moral responsibilities we have to the animals under our care and to the consumers trusting the pork industry to produce, transport and process our animals in a humane and compassionate manner. In all methods of production, the pig is subjected to many internal and external stressors throughout its life. It is only when the stress level exceeds the body’s capacity to cope that the pigs’ well-being is compromised. The inability to cope will result in loss of efficiency and long term harm with the ultimate extreme being death (Moberg and Mench, 2000). In order to provide a safe and efficient system to market pigs, it is of the utmost importance to have a thorough understanding of their composition and physical attributes. The animal handler’s primary objective is to minimize the animal’s level of fear and therefore their negative stress by maximizing positive interactions while encouraging the animal to move to the target location. This is accomplished by understanding the animal’s point of balance and how to manipulate the edge of the flight zone. The majority of pigs can be moved simply by understanding and utilizing the point of balance without ever having to employ a moving aid (Grandin, 2006). The goal of any handling and loading system should be to provide a continuous unidirectional flow of pigs from the pen to the trailer and trailer into the plant, with minimal amount of stress on the animal. Pigs load and transport best in a highly controlled, consistent environment that eliminates distractions and mimics the features of the home pen. This control should include all major and minor aspects of the animals’ environment, such as chute width, ramp slope, wall coloration, lighting, flooring material, airflow patterns, etc. To maintain a high level of success requires constant vigilance and evaluation of the system to identify areas for improvement. This requires a collaborative effort of the producer, the transport company and processing facility. At a minimum, the factors that should be continuously monitored (TQA, 2005) are average live weight, load time (on a per pig basis), death loss (in transit and at the plant), non-ambulatory pigs and an identified reason (lame, fatigued, etc). Additional information including loading personnel, driver, trailer identification, prod usage, slips/falls percentage and chute integrity can be useful for continually improving the loading system.

Microbial and nutritional characteristics of pig liquid feed during fermentation

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Microbiological sampling of swine carcasses: A comparison of data obtained by swabbing with medical gauze and data collected routinely by excision at Swedish abattoirs

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