Ammonia-oxidizing communities in agricultural soil incubated with organic waste residues

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The effect of calcium on the anaerobic digestion treating swine wastewater

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John Patience Receives Award for Excellence in Nutrition and Meat Sciences

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Saskatoon – Dr. John Patience, President and CEO of Prairie Swine Centre recently received the Award for Excellence in Nutrition and Meat Sciences from the Canadian Society of Animal Science (C.S.A.S.).

The award recognizes excellence in teaching, research or technology transfer in the area of animal nutrition or meat science. The award is sponsored by the Shur-Gain Division of Maple Leaf Foods, and is presented at the annual meeting of the society.

John’s list of accomplishments in nutrition research include expanding our knowledge of amino acid and energy metabolism, of water quality and utilization, of understanding and capitalizing on the variability of common feed ingredients, and of the importance of dietary electrolyte balance. In the citation the Society recognized John’s other accomplishments:
Ø A popular speaker at industry and academic events having made more than 200 presentations in 8 Canadian provinces, 14 U.S. states, and 5 other countries
Ø Former President of the C.S.A.S., former Assistant Editor of the Canadian Journal of Animal Science, former member of the editorial board of the Journal of Animal Science
Ø A current or former director of the Farm Animal Council of Saskatchewan, Pharmalytics, Agwest Biotech, and SPI
Ø Co-founder of the Western Nutrition Council and the Saskatchewan Pork Industry Symposium

“John’s contribution to important scientific issues is well recognized, but it is his focus on providing practical, application-oriented information that sets him apart in the industry” notes Bryan Perkins, of Perkins Family Farms, Wainwright, Alberta. “As Chairman of the Prairie Swine Center Board of Directors, and a pork producer, I have watched John build Prairie Swine Center into an internationally recognized scientific institution, that speak directly to industry needs.”

Prairie Swine Centre Inc., located in Saskatoon, is a non-profit research corporation affiliated with the University of Saskatchewan, and is recognized globally for its contributions to practical, applied science in pork production in the disciplines of Nutrition, Engineering and Animal Behaviour.

Space Allowance for Finishing Pigs Affects Productivity, Health and Behaviour

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Summary

The reduction in average daily gain due to reduced space allowance for pigs in both small and large groups occurs at a similar point as that previously reported in the literature (k = approximately 0.033 – 0.036 m2/BW(kg)0.667). Lameness was more common in the less spacious treatment during the final weeks of the study. Pigs in crowded conditions had fewer meals and less total time spent eating compared to the more spacious treatment. Space allowance can affect health and behaviour as well as productivity.

Introduction

Space allowance is an important consideration in finishing pig production as it has both economic and animal care implications. Producers must balance the efficiency of production while maintaining acceptable levels of animal care. Most studies on space allowance have been limited to the effects on animal productivity, and were designed to ‘stand alone’ and yield results specific to the conditions studied. In the case of space allowance, for which numerous studies have been published, it is possible to conduct an analysis of all of their results to obtain a more precise measure of the effects on productivity. We conducted such an analysis on previously published results on space allowance. We also conducted a study combining both space allowance and group size as a part of a larger series of studies on the effects of space allowance.

Experimental Procedure

We collected previously published material on the effects of space allowance on animal productivity. We restricted our analysis to average daily gain, feed intake and feed efficiency as these were consistently reported while few other variables were. We analysed the data on a relative basis, that is, the results of the more crowded treatments were expressed as a proportion of the least crowded treatment within each study. In this way we were able to control for housing conditions, general health, genotype and nutritional programs that differed among studies, but were consistent within each study. We expressed space allowance using the allometric equation Area = k * body weight0.667, which allowed us to use studies based on different final weights. To obtain a precise estimate of the point at which reduced space allowance results in a reduction in performance, we conducted a broken line analysis of the data.

We conducted a study on finishing pigs kept in either small (18 pigs/pen) or large (108 pigs/pen) per group, under two space allowances (0.52 vs 0.78 m2/pig; 5.6 vs 8.4 sqft/pig). Within group size we analysed production variables on a relative basis and applied a broken line analysis. We also examined the pigs for injuries and lameness, and observed their behaviour at 2-week intervals throughout the study. We limit our analysis of this study to the effects of space allowance for this article.

Results and Discussion

The data obtained from the literature resulted from studies in Canada, Europe and the United States (see Figure 1). Analysis of this data published identified the point at which space allowance began to reduce average daily gain as a ‘k’ value of 0.0336 m2/kg0.667. For a typical finishing barn with a target market of 115 kg, and making their first pull when 10% of their pigs reach this target, this ‘k’ value represents 0.72 m2/pig (7.75 sqft/pig). The space allowance per pig would differ if market weight or the 1st pull percentage varied from these levels. For every 1% reduction in space allowance below this level, average daily gain over the entire trial was reduced by an average of 0.33%. The same pattern was detected in the data on average daily feed intake. No effect of space allowance was seen for feed efficiency.

In our study we saw no significant difference in the effect of space allowance in the two group size treatments (Table 1). Average daily gain was reduced by crowding in both small and large groups. The broken line analysis indicated that average daily gain began to be depressed when space allowance fell below a k value of 0.036, slightly higher than the literature value. However, the difference would not be considered statistically significant. The key production result is that our average daily gain results identified a break point similar to previous studies.

In terms of health and injuries, the pigs in our less spacious treatment evidenced more lameness during the final weeks of the study. This is in agreement with our expectations that health problems associated with space allowance should only develop at the end of the study when pigs become more crowded. A second difference that we observed was that crowded pigs had fewer meals, of the same length as uncrowded pigs, and therefore less eating time. This pattern is that of an animal with a reduced appetite. In contrast, pigs in large groups, that had to travel further to eat, had fewer but longer meals, and maintained their total daily eating time. This ‘reduced appetite’ effect of crowding is supported by previous research indicating that crowded pigs will reduce their energy intake even if the feed is made more energy dense, which should have enabled the pigs to maintain daily nutrient intake if they wanted to.

Implications

Results obtained under conditions more typical of commercial production confirm that reductions in space allowance below a ‘k’ value of approximately 0.0336 m2/kg0.667 will reduce productivity. The effects of reduced space allowance may also be seen in health variables, such as lameness, but only near the end of the finishing period. The eating patterns of pigs in crowded conditions suggest a reduction in appetite rather than a simple restriction of feeder access.

Acknowledgements

Strategic program funding was provided by Sask Pork, Alberta Pork and Manitoba Pork. Specific project funding was provided by the National Pork Board (US), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

“The effects of reduced space allowance may be seen in both health and behaviour, as well as in productivity.”

Est-ce que la valeur énergétique des pois dépend de leur composition?

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Une grande variation du contenu en protéines brutes et en amidon est observée parmi les pois provenant de fermes de l’ouest canadien. Cet article a pour but d’évaluer l’impact de cette variation sur la valeur énergique des pois dans l’alimentation des porcs. Introduction – Les producteurs de légumineuses ont des inquiétudes quant aux grandes variations dans la composition observée des échantillons de pois amassés à travers les Prairies. Cependant, il n’est pas clair que cette variation affecte la valeur énergétique des pois. Résultats et discussion – Au total, 50 échantillons de pois ont été amassés en Saskatchewan, Alberta et Manitoba en 2005. Leur analyse confirme le haut taux de variation dans la composition, surtout dans le contenu en protéines brutes et en amidon (Tableau 1). Ceci est en accord avec les observations faites par la Commission canadienne du grain (20 à 26% de protéines brutes, Nang & Daun, 2004). Cependant, une analyse détaillée des résultats démontre que la majorité des échantillons possédaient un contenu de protéines allant de 23 à 24% de la matière sèche (Figure 1). En 1998, Zijlstra et al. ont déterminé l’énergie digestible (E.D) de 11 échantillons de pois amassés dans l’ouest canadien, et ont obtenu des valeurs de E.D allant de 3100 à 3740 kcal/kg. Cela représente une variation de 20%, ce qui est plus bas que la variation observée pour les protéines brutes et l’amidon, par exemple. Contrairement à ce qui est observé chez les céréales, aucune relation n’a pu être établie entre le contenu de fibre détergent neutre (NDF) et la valeur énergétique. Différentes hypothèses peuvent être formulées. Premièrement, le contenu de NDF ne reflète pas le contenu en fibres actuel. Les pois contiennent, en moyenne, de 10 à 12% de NDF alors que le contenu de vrais fibres varie de 19 à 25% de la matière sèche (Tableau 1).La différence est attribuée au fait que la méthode du NDF avec des détergents n’est pas appropriée pour les légumineuses et à la présence de fibres solubles, telles que la pectine et les oligosaccharides. Il n’y a pas d’information disponible sur l’effet de ces composantes non-détectées. Deuxièmement, plus de 90% des fibres du pois sont fermentés dans l’appareil digestif du porc et nous ne savons pas comment cela affecte le processus digestif. Finalement, la fermentation des fibres donne de l’énergie au porc, sous forme d’acides gras volatiles, mais à un point qui doit encore être déterminé. Les chercheurs du Prairie Swine Centre travaillent présentement sur l’estimation de la valeur énergétique nette (EN) d’échantillons de pois qui sont de compositions différentes. Ils ont comme but d’utiliser les équations de prédiction de Noblet. Ces dernières sont basées sur la composition et la digestibilité de la diète. Certaines équations sont basées seulement sur la composition (exemple) : EN = 2790 + 4,12 x EE + 0,81 x Amidon – 6,65 x Cendre – 4,72 x ADF où le EE (extrait éther) est le contenu en gras et l’ADF est le contenu de fibre détergent acide (ligno-cellulose) (Noblet et al, 1994). Cette équation a été utilisée ici pour estimer la valeur de EN des 50 échantillons de pois et les résultats varient de 2460 à 2680 kcal NE/kg. Le taux de variation (8%) est alors beaucoup plus bas que la variation observée pour les contenus en protéines ou en amidon. Si l’on s’en tient à cette équation, la cendre est le facteur principal qui affecte le EN, alors que l’amidon ne joue qu’un rôle limité et les protéines n’ont aucun effet. Les pois ont un faible contenu en cendres mais celui-ci est très variable. Wang et Daun (2004) ont observé de plus haut taux de variation que dans l’étude actuelle (1,3 à 3,4%) et attribuent cette variation au contenu en potassium, qui représente 40% du contenu minéral total. Le contenu en gras est aussi une composante importante d’énergie mais, pour la cendre, les niveaux dans les pois sont très limités. Le dernier élément est l’ADF ou ligno-cellulose, mais ceux-ci sont les composantes les plus stables des pois (de 6,5 à 8,6%, Wang & Daun, 2004). Conclusion – Pour conclure, il est probable que la variation de la valeur énergique des pois sera plus basse que ce que la variation des contenus en protéines et en amidon peut suggérer. Ceux-ci n’affectent pas beaucoup la digestion de l’énergie et les composantes qui pourraient affecter les réserves d’énergie sont soit présentes en faibles quantités (cendre, gras) ou varient peu (ADF). Remerciements : Subventions stratégiques par Sask Pork, Alberta Pork, Manitoba Pork Council et le Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food Development Fund. La recherche a été subventionnée par Saskatchewan Pulse Growers et Alberta Pulse Growers.

The Role of Oestradiol in the Uterine Peristalsis in the Perfused Swine Uterus

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This study was designed to examine the effects of oestradiol (E2) on sperm transport in the swine uterus. The bicornuate swine uterus is optimal for the study of the uterine transport and peristalsis because the influence of various factors can be examined on each uterine horn independently. Forty
swine uteri (with or without ovarectomy) were perfused for a period of up to 7 h. Two different E2 concentrations (3 or 30 pg/ml) in the perfusion medium were administered for 30 min unilaterally. Through an intracervical catheter 1 ml of a high concentrated dextran blue solution was administered
directly in the upper part of the cervix. After bilateral perfusion of the swine uterus with a bolus of 0.3 IU oxytocin the distribution of coloured particles was assessed macroscopically before and after incision of the uterine horns. Coloration was evaluated by two observers blinded to the site-specific administration of E2. In the 10 ovarectomized uteri with the 3 pg/ml E2 concentration a unilateral distribution towards the side of oestradiol administration was observed in six uteri, in four it was a bilateral distribution. In the 10 non-ovarectomized uteri with the 3 pg/ml E2 concentration a uni- and ipsilateral coloration was observed in five uteri, in five it was a bilateral
distribution. In the 20 uteri with 30 pg/ml E2, a unilateral coloration of the uterus horns was observed in all uteri. Oestradiol is one of the main factors, which influences the direction of the sperm transport in a dose-dependent manner, in the perfused swine uterus.

Formalised review of environmental enrichment for pigs in relation to political decision making

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Environmental enrichment is an important requirement for the welfare of farm animals, which are often kept in barren environments. This is also true for pigs. In 2001, the European Commission adopted a Directive (2001/93/EC) laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs. In addition to requirements on noise levels, light conditions and water supply Directive 2001/93/EC states that: ‘‘Pigs must have permanent access to a sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities, such as straw, hay, wood, sawdust, mushroom compost, peat or a mixture of such, which does not compromise the health of the animals.’’ A problem with the EC Directive is that its leaves too much room for interpretation. It is not clear, for example, whether metal chains, ropes, rubber toys or hard plastic balls are sufficient materials to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities. Although reviews have been published on the welfare of pigs generally (e.g. SVC, 1997) and on enrichment for captive animals generally (e.g. Young, 2003), no recent review on environmental enrichment for pigs is available, despite much scientific activity on the subject. In addition, a method is lacking to translate results of research into a specified directive. The aim of this paper, therefore, was to review the literature on environmental enrichment in pigs using a formalised procedure to start disclosing the scientific basis for the EC Directive as part of a larger project aimed at constructing a science-based model for assessing enrichment value in pigs. In order to help determine what is sufficient material for weaned and growing pigs, a literature review was conducted in a transparent and formalised way, systematically collecting relevant information in a database and translating this information into welfare-relevance. In total, 54 experiments reported in 47 references were selected for analysis. These references contained 200 statistically significant and welfare-relevant findings. A cross-table was constructed showing how classes of enrichment materials significantly affect classes of measured parameters. The classes of enrichment materials were metal objects, rubber, rope, wood, mineral blocks, roughage, substrates, straw and compound materials. The classes of welfare parameters were object-directed behaviour, pen-directed behaviour, tail and ear biting, aggression, (other) harmful social behaviour, activity (including play), fear (of humans), production and ‘health and hygiene’. With a number of important caveats described in the paper the cross-table allows the tentative conclusion that the available scientific evidence indicates that metal objects are not suitable enrichment materials for pigs, that rubber, rope, wood, roughage and substrates may be sufficient and that straw and compound materials are best. The methodology developed here for reviewing the available scientific evidence is recommended for other areas of application. It provided an important first step towards making transparent the scientific basis for legal requirements on enrichment materials for pigs and supporting political decision making in this area.

Porcine Circovirus Associated Diseases (PCVAD) in Canada – Prevalence, Co- Factors, and Risk Factors

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Since the discovery and characterization of PMWS in western Canada in 1995, the significance and dissemination of post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) has grown. For the purpose of this presentation I will use Porcine Circovirus- Associated Disease (PCVAD) instead of PMWS because the name PMWS does not include the variety of clinical presentations associated with the disease. This syndrome is characterized by respiratory, digestive, hemolymphatic, vascular, and renal lesions associated with Porcine circovirus-2 (PCV-2) infection. Clinical signs and lesions are observed in late nursery (8-10 weeks of age), and finisher pigs, 2–3 wks after placement. Affected pigs present all or some of the following: cough, diarrhea, anemia, icterus, poor body condition, generalized lymphadenopathy and skin lesions. In 2004, 2005 and part of 2006 PCV-2-associated disease showed a dramatic increase in the Eastern provinces of Canada. It should be noted that the PCV-2 isolated from these new cases presented significant changes in its genome. Due to the sudden appearance of these genetic changes and the severity of clinical disease and mortality seen in the Eastern provinces swine production, it has been proposed that these outbreaks were caused by the dissemination of a new strain of higher virulence. As of today, this hypothesis has not been proven experimentally or by field studies. However, Dr. Carl Gagnon from the University of Montreal is performing studies in order to prove this hypothesis. Up until the summer of 2006 in the Western Provinces, PCVAD was a sporadic finding. However the picture has changed from the sporadic form to the epizootic form on several farms. Veterinarians in the West report 3 different manifestations of PCVAD: Type I: Sporadic occurrence, minimal effect on long term mortality, mainly wasting presentation fitting with the PMWS case definition. Type II: Persistent PCVAD signs. Mortality is elevated, maybe doubled in the affected age group and there is an increase in the number of cull pigs sold. Type III: Epizootic, severity varies with presence of concurrent disease, especially PRRS. Mortality ranges around 8 to 25% in 8- to 13-week-old pigs. Management, immune stimulation or vaccination also seem to play an important role in the presentation of this syndrome. Harding (2006) posed a very interesting hypothesis where “the key to controlling and preventing PMWS in any herd regardless of PMWS status, location, strain or co-factors involved is to reduce and maintain PCV2 viral load below this biologically critical “threshold”. As mentioned before PMWS was first described in 1995, however, retrospective studies have shown that both PCV2 infection and clinical cases of PMWS were present as early as 1985 indicating that PCV2 is not a new virus. These findings, together with the fact that PCV2 infection is present in almost 98 % of the swine farms around the world clearly suggest that PCVAD is a multifactorial disease. Remember that if herd evidence suggests an association between vaccination practices and PCV2- associated disease, re-evaluation of use and timing of certain vaccines is important. Good management practices should be exercised, i.e. strict and true all-in-all-out, early removal of runt pigs and of those that don’t respond to treatment, and reduction of mixing and moving of pigs; reduction of viral load by using disinfectants both in buildings and transport vehicles have been demonstrated to be efficacious against PCV2, and if it is an option, consider changing pig genetics if there is enough evidence that there is a predisposition at the farm. Finally, as commercial vaccines have become available in North America, reports generally seem to agree that vaccines are an effective tool in the control of PCVAD; therefore a combination of the above measures and vaccine might provide the control strategy for this interesting, complex but devastating syndrome.

Coping with a Disaster in Your Barn

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PRRS and circovirus are devastating to herds. When such disasters hit, it is important to remember to accept humility, be realistic, control what you can, not to finger point, be confident, and build an understanding.

SIMULATION COMPARISON OF EVAPORATIVE PADS AND FOGGING ON AIR TEMPERATURES INSIDE A GROWING SWINE BUILDING

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