Gestating sows: All group housing is not the same, but neither are all stalls

Posted in: Prairie Swine Centre by admin on January 1, 2004 | No Comments

Too often we hear statements concerning ‘group housing’ and ‘stalls’ that imply that all such systems are the same. Group systems in particular are extremely different in how they control feed intake and manage aggression. It is important that we understand which particular group and stall systems are being compared. Gestation housing for sows is more complex than is often implied by generalizations. There are numerous group housing systems being used for gestating sows, but they generally fall within four general types. Floor feeding systems involve spreading a limited amount of feed over a large floor area and there is relatively poor control over individual feed intake, and high levels of aggression during feeding. The animals are often kept in small groups to minimize both re-grouping and feeding related aggression. Another type of group housing provides a feeding site for each sow, and feed is dropped into these sites at a speed slightly slower than the animals can eat it. Each sow stands at a feeding site waiting for the feed, rather than attempting to take feed from another sow. These ‘trickle’ feeding systems control individual feed intake and feeding associated aggression fairly well, but animals must still be re-grouped and group size must be kept small. A third type of group housing provides individual feeding stalls, and an open area for the non-feeding period. Feed intake is very well controlled, as is feeding-associated aggression. However, such a system still involves re-grouping aggression, requires a great deal of space, and still requires individual stalls. A final type of group housing system involves the use of electronic sow feeders. In such a system each sow in the group wears an electronic identification tag and a computer and an electronic stall control feeding. When the sow enters the feeding stall she is identified by means of her tag, her records are checked on the computer, and her daily allotment of feed is provided to her. This system provides very good control over individual feed intake and prevents much of the feeding associated aggression, but still involves re-grouping fighting. The feeding and control equipment is more costly than in most other systems, but the computer can be used in other aspects of management. Not all group-housing systems are the same. Each achieves the goals of controlling individual feed intake and aggression to a different degree. If the farm has a stall housing system it is usually one size usually 22 or 24 inches (56 or 61 cm) wide. The Code of Practice makes the logical recommendation that the size of stall should depend upon the size of the sow. This study used the suggested sizes in the Code to develop a formula for width based on sow weight. The demographics were then estimated for the herd once a stable population was reached. Based on this data, stalls ranging from 22 to 28 inches (56 to 72 cm) in width were included, in proportions that should match the size of sows in the mature herd. For each weekly breeding group there are four narrow stalls for small gilts, several stalls for second and third parity sows, a few less for 4th and 5th parity animals, and two 28 inch (72 cm) stalls for 6th parity animals. Hopefully by allotting animals to stalls based on their size it will reduce injuries and improve longevity.

Wholesale-Retail Marketing Margin Behavior in the Beef and Pork Industries

Posted in: Economics by admin on | No Comments

An econometric model is used to estimate real wholesale-retail marketing margins for beef and pork. From 1970 to 1998, these margins increased by 27% and 149% while farm-wholesale margins declined. Wholesale-Retail (WR) marketing margin increases have caused livestock producers to focus on the retail sector as a contributor to declining real livestock prices. Increases in WR margins may be related to increased demand and costs of value-added food products/services as well as increased market concentration in the retail grocery sector. Results indicate that retail factors, and to a lesser extent meat processing factors, significantly increased WR margins and decreased livestock prices.

Effects of group size on social behavior following regrouping of growing-finishing pigs.

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

Large group size may increase aggression, decrease productivity, and impair animal welfare. The objectives of this study were to assess the effects of group size on social behaviour post-mixing, particularly the distribution of aggression, associated injuries, and resulting productivity. A total of 480 growing-finishing pigs were used in a 12-wk study to quantify the effects of group size (10, 20, 40, and 80 pigs per pen) on aggression, aggression-related injuries, behavioural patterns, and the relationships among aggression, injuries, and growth rate. Pigs were regrouped at 8 weeks of age. Aggression of pigs during the first 8 h post-regrouping was observed by live observation. Injury scores were assessed on individual pigs 48 h after regrouping. Pigs were weighed individually at the beginning and end of the study to determine average daily gain. Total duration of aggression for the 8 h post-regrouping was similar among group sizes and average approximately 14 min per pig. The total number of fights per pig in the groups of 10 pigs was lower than for group of 20, 40, and 80 pigs. When group size was increased to 40 pigs per pen, the average number of naïve fighting pairs (neither pigs had previously fought) increased significantly. However, the ratio of total pigs in the pen to the number of naïve fighting pairs was similar among group sizes. The longest duration of fights and most number of fights occurred in the first 2 h post-regrouping. The proportion of pigs that did not fight during the 8 h post-regrouping was higher in groups of 40 and 80 pigs. Pigs with similar body weights fought for longer time than pigs with large difference in body weight. Total injuries scores, which were positively correlated with aggression, were similar among group sizes. Although initial body weight was positively correlated with the number of fights, the duration of fights and total injury scores, the overall average daily gain was not correlated with aggression and injury scores post-regrouping. In conclusion, pigs in large groups did not evidence a high level of aggression. The commonly held fears of increased aggression, its consequent injuries, and decreased productivity in large groups were not found in this study.

Pre-partum udder massaging as a means for reduction of fear in primiparous cows at milking.

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

During the first 76 days of lactation, primiparous cows were observed to determine the effects of varying frequencies of pre-partum udder massage (45, 30 or 15 massaging sessions on alternate days during last trimester of pregnancy) on temperament score, milk letdown time, milk flow rate, and frequency of urination and defecation. During milking, the restlessness of the animals that had been exposed to pre-partum udder massage was reduced significantly compared to animals in the control group. The median value of milk letdown time varied from 23 to 31 s while the median value of milk flow rate varied from 13 to 16 g/s in the massaged groups compared to 46-50 s and 8-9 g/s, respectively in the control group. All of the differences were significant. Both urination and defecation frequencies were significantly high up to the 16th day of lactation in the non-massaged group. Conclusions stated that udder massaging for 30 sessions would reduce the level of fear in primiparous cows and also facilitate clean milk production.

Long-term detrimental effects of tooth clipping or grinding in piglets: a histological approach.

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

Histological examination was carried out on young piglets in order to assess the consequences of tooth resection over the days following the tooth clipping. The methods of tooth clipping with clippers, and grinding by use of a rotating grindstone were compared. Piglets were slaughtered at days 3, 6, 13, 27, and 48 after tooth resection in order to collect their teeth and prepare the teeth for histological examination. Both clipping and grinding were found to induce lesions such as pulp cavity opening, fracture, hemorrhage, infiltration or abscess, and osteodentine formation. Most of these effects occurred sooner and were a larger problem after teeth clipping than after grinding. Conclusions stated that tooth grinding was still likely to cause severe pain in piglets. Thus, it was proposed that the rationale of the practice should be reevaluated.

Short-term spatial memory in the domestic horse

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

This study was conducted to determine if horses could successfully remember where to find food after a delay in seeing and hearing where the food was initially placed. Twelve horses were tested individually in an arena. At the beginning of the test, the horses were maintained immobile in the arena where they could see and hear the food being delivered in one of two positions in the arena. The horse’s ability to find the food was tested immediately after the food was delivered and after a delay of 10 seconds after the food was delivered. Each test was repeated 40 times initially and repeated 40 times three months later. The results indicated that horses were successful in the immediate release tests, but not in the 10 second delayed release tests. The authors concluded that horses may not have a prospective type of memory and therefore limitations in recall abilities. These results are important to consider for the welfare of horses and during training, such as problems in overestimating their mental abilities and the effects of delaying reinforcements.

Feather pecking in laying hens: new insight and directions for research?

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

Based on behaviour, physiology, development and genetics, the new findings and future research studies on feather pecking in laying hens were outlined in the this article. Four topics were covered, first being the relationship between gentle and severe feather pecking. The occurrence of gentle feather pecking at a young age was not a good predictor as to whether or not the hens would feather peck later on in life. Researchers than compared the response to restraint of hens that were highly prone to feather peck with those that were not likely to feather peck. Birds that were more likely to feather peck tended to be proactive to restraint, which means they develop rigid routine and are motivated by internal mechanisms. While hens that were not prove to feather peck tended be reactive to restraint, which means that these hens have a more flexible behavioural repertoire and respond more to external stimuli. This research may lead to identifying hens that are more likely to feather peck. Researchers than examined the underlying cause of feather pecking, and found that it could be how the hens redirect the motivation to ground peck (either because of the inability to dustbathe or forage). However, feather pecking in young hens could also be a form of social exploration. Feather pecking is known to be a trait that can be passed onto the offspring. By combining the efforts from various research disciplines, may by the most practical way to prevent feather pecking in the future.

Welfare implications of avian osteoporosis

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

In the mid-20th century, after laying hens started being housed in cages, cage layer fatigue began appearing. It was discovered that cage layer fatigue was due to excessive bone loss, causing osteoporosis and bone brittleness. The ribs, keel and thoracic vertebrae are common sites for bone fractures to occur. Sometimes paralysis also occurs due to vertebral fracture damaging the spinal cord. Highly productive caged laying hens inevitably develop osteoporosis. Metabolic deficiencies of calcium, phosphorous, or vitamin D can worsen the condition. Increased physical activity among laying hens has been shown to reduce the incidence of osteoporosis and cage layer fatigue. Bone weakness may have a genetic component that can be selected against and therefore reduce the incidence of this problem. Pain, debility, and mortality are some of the welfare concerns. Also, with increased bone brittleness there are welfare concerns about catching and transporting these hens. Hunane on-farm killing methods for spent hens should be considered a high priority research agenda.

Pathogens in the Environment

Posted in: Welfare by admin on | No Comments

A study completed recently for the Manitoba Livestock Manure Management Initiative and the Manitoba Rural Adaptation Council by Dr. R. A. Holley at the University of Manitoba reviewed the results of a lot of research on the risk of intestinal illness in humans from pathogens originating in both humans and animals. The study consisted of a review and analysis of the literature. It was not based on any laboratory or field experiments of its own although several databases were analyzed. The study revealed that a lot is known on the subject but it also revealed significant gaps in the science and in surveillance data. Dr. Holley’s study focused initially on the mechanisms for contracting enteric illness in humans from animals through food, water, air and direct contact with animals and humans. One observation made by Dr. Holley is that, notwithstanding that Canada’s export of pork is increasing (while domestic consumption remains constant); food-borne illness caused by pork in Canada is declining. This would suggest that hog producers and pork processors are doing a good job. He cautions, on the other hand, that surveillance data is not very comprehensive and that more confidence could be placed in this observation if the data were more robust. Dr. Holley concludes that, “given the currently available data, pork is not considered a major source of food-borne infection in Canada and reports of illness from any food contaminated by hog manure do not exist in North America”. However, he warns, “the potential exists for manure to be an important vector”. He expresses concern that standard culture methods for pathogens are periodically unreliable and suggests that there is a need to improve sensitivity and specificity. Dr. Holley’s study confirmed the knowledge that pathogens can migrate for significant distances and at high rates in the environment. More specifically, he found that some studies have shown that pathogens from manure, using currently acceptable application practices, can travel through soil and reach receiving waters, which are subsequently used as public water sources. He declares that “although it is impossible to predict the mobility of these pathogens in soil in Manitoba, it is clear that the potential exists for microorganisms to be transported in the environment and to contaminate regional water supplies.” He notes, in concluding, that the regulation of manure management in most jurisdictions is based on nutrients and odour rather than risk from pathogens.

The Payoff from Generic Advertising by the Australian Pig Industry in the Presence of Trade

Posted in: Production by admin on | No Comments