The effect of litter size and littermate weight on pre-weaning performance of low-birth-weight piglets that have been cross-fostered.

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Pre-weaning performance of piglets who had been cross-fostered was compared to evaluate the effects of litter size and littermate weight on low-birth-weight piglets. Litter size was either 8 or 12 piglets. Low-birth-weight piglets were housed with either an equal number of heavy-birth-weight piglets, an equal number of average-birth-weight piglets, or in a group of all low-birth-weight piglets. A resulting six groups (treatments) were created. In large litters, the mortality of low-birth-weight piglets housed with heavy-birth-weight piglets was greatest. In small litters, mortality of low-birth-weight piglets housed with heavy-birth-weight piglets was no different. Neither littermate weight, litter size, nor the interaction between the two affected weight gains of the piglets until day three post partum. Conversely, littermate weight, litter size, and the interaction between the two did affect weight at 21 days post partum. Low-birth-weight piglets in small litters had a significantly higher 21 day weights than piglets in large litters. In large but not small litters, low-birth-weight piglets were absent at more nursing episodes and spent more time fighting over teats than their heavier littermates, whether housed with heavy-birth-weight piglets or average-birth-weight piglets. Conclusions stated that littermate weight may affect performance of low-birth-weight piglets due to direct competition for access to a functional teat.

The effect of claw and beak reduction on growth parameters and fearfulness of two leghorn strains.

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Two strains of leghorn chickens were used to test a technique for sterilizing the germinal tissue of the claw with microwave energy and the beak tissue with infrared energy for trimming the claw and beak of the birds. Claw sterilizing was carried out on half of the birds while the other half of birds were left intact. Of the claw-sterilized birds, one third of them were beak trimmed at hatch using the infrared technique, one third were precision trimmed at 7 days of age, and the beaks of the remaining third of the birds were left intact. Birds that had been claw-sterilized had a significantly lower body weight, except from weeks 3 to 6, and had a lower feed consumption from week 8 to 18. The birds that were beak-trimmed at hatch had a lower body weight from week 3 to 14 and ate less total feed by the fourth week. Mortality was lower than 2.1 % for all treatments. Using a fearfulness scoring system of 1 to 10, from week 6 to 8, birds with intact claws peaked at 8 to 10 and birds that had been claw-sterilized peaked at 3 to 4. The fearfulness score subsided to 2 to 3 and 6 to 8 for claw-sterilized and non-claw-sterilized birds, respectively, by week 16 to 18. Pullets were able to be grown to sexual maturity on less feed and with a lower level of observed fearfulness using standard husbandry practices when they were beak-trimmed and claw-sterilized at hatch.

Behavioural aspects of feeding constraints: do broilers follow their hut feelings?

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Many trials investigating issues relating to the feeding and growth of broiler chickens do not include behavioural observations. One example is the work by Burkhart et al. (1983). They proposed that one of the associated changes in broiler chickens as a result of selection for lean, efficient growth is alterations to satiety mechanisms in the brain leading to excessive food intake and compulsive feeding behaviour. They compared fast and slow growing chickens with or without ventromedial hypothalamic (VHM) lesions, and found not changes in the fast growing strains, but increased fat deposition in the slow growing strain. However, no behavioural measures were examined, and a reduction in activity of the slow growing line as a result of VHM lesions would offer an alternative explanation of the results. The present paper briefly outlines some of the vast body of research which has been carried out on different aspects of feed intake and growth of broilers in order to highlight the multitude of disciplines involved and factors at play. One reason for the paucity of trials which incorporate behavioural aspects of feeding may be, that the study of feeding behaviour in the broadest sense span two quite diverse scientific objectives. One is concerned with satiety and the mechanisms behind intake control. The other is concerned with daily feed intake, which is one crude measure of feeding behaviour, and the resulting growth and efficiency. However, feeding behaviour and other behavioural aspects of feeding often play an important role in the interpretation of production results. Conversely, many behavioural studies of growing animals, such as modern broilers, would benefit from a more stringent incorporation of nutritional data and discussions of non-behavioural aspects of growth. More studies of the interactions among physiological capacity, genetic potential, and social effects on feeding behaviour and activity of broilers would greatly improve our ability to interpret experimental results.

A short note on effects of exposure to a novel stimulus (umbrella) on behaviour and percentage of eye-white in cows.

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Fear response in dairy cows was studied in response to exposure to an unfamiliar umbrella that was suddenly opened 0-2 m in front of the cows. Eye-white percentage was tested as an indicator of fear experienced. All animals showed startle and avoidance responses when first exposed to the opening umbrella. Compared to 30 seconds before the umbrella was opened, there was a significant increase in avoidance and percentage of eye white during a 30 second (avoidance) and 60 second (eye-white) observation period after the umbrella was opened. Based on these results, the percentage of eye-white may be a useful gauge of fear experienced in dairy cows

Fear and stress reactions, and the performance of commercial broiler chickens subjected to regular pleasant and unpleasant contacts with human being.

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The effects of regular pleasant and unpleasant interactions with humans on tonic immobility (TI), heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (HLR), body weight, feed conversion ratios (FCR) and mortality in commercial broiler chickens were studied. The following treatments were imposed for 20 days: 1) Control: the birds only experienced standard husbandry interactions; 2) Pleasant/physical: each bird was held and gently stroked for 30 seconds everyday; 3) Unpleasant/physical: each bird was held upside down, and gently swung for 30 seconds everyday; 4) Pleasant/visual: was randomly caught in its home pen and gently stroked for 10 minutes twice per day so the cagemates could see; 5) Unpleasant/visual: was randomly caught in its home pen and held upside down by its legs and swung gently for 30 seconds so the cagemates could see. After the treatments had been implemented the birds were moved from their home floor pens to three-tiered battery cages. TI and HLR responses were measured before and after the chicks were moved. There was no interaction between time of transfer and treatment. The TI and HLR were lower in the chicks from the pleasant/physical and pleasant/visual group, compared to the control group. TI was not different in the unpleasant/physical or unpleasant/visual treatments, but unpleasant/physical chicks had lower HLR ratios than the controls. The pleasant/physical treatment resulted in improved body weight and FCR. However, body weight and FCR was not affected by the other three treatments. The authors concluded that the pleasant physical and pleasant visual treatments caused a reduction in fear and physiological stress response. The unpleasant treatments did not appear to have adverse effects on underlying fearfulness, stress reaction or performance.

Dealing with Water Concerns for Pork Production

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Water is an important factor in swine production for performance of vital bodily functions; therefore it needs to be managed well. As pigs progress throughout the different stages of production and different developments are desired, their water requirement will change. Regardless of the stage of production, water should be available to all pigs ad libitum. Areas of specific water concern include: 1) Water quality (mainly the chemical composition and bacteria load which can have detrimental effects to pigs health); 2) Diet composition (dry matter content and concentrations of salt,
crude protein and fibre levels are known to influence water intake in pigs); 3) Physiology (e.g. – gestation vs. lactation); 4) Environmental factors (such as heat stresses); and 5) Equipment design and placement (such as water nipple availability and placement).

To deal with water quality concerns, water quality should be tested at least once a year for coliform contamination and mineral concentration so that diets can be adjusted accordingly. Several treatments are available including chlorination, acidification, softening, and coagulation. Although these do provide an effective treatment, it should not permanently substitute getting to the root of the problem.

Developments in Global Pig Production

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Global meat consumption will increase as the human population increases. East Asia, North America, and Europe are the major players in pork production. China contains nearly half the worlds pig population, and Japan imports the most. In the US and Canada, pork production has increased within the last decade. The US has changed from an importing to an exporting country due to pork export being 4 times more profitable than grain export. Europe has relatively cheap labour and land prices, so they are expected to grow. Markets are changing from production to market oriented, which means we are going more and more towards a consumer-oriented product. This means we need to be aware of the desires of the consumers both in product and production. Different supply chains should be built for different products. Consumers expect attractive, nutritious, and safe food from environmentally responsible producers. Breeding companies must develop different breeding lines in order to fulfil the requirements of the production chains. Five basic items affecting the supply chain are food safety, quality (through risk analysis and risk management policies), production, cost, and information. Tracking and tracing throughout the whole chain is necessary to state the guarantees. Monitoring of all parts of the chain is essential.

The emergence of novel influenza viruses among pigs in North America due to interspecies transmission and reassortment

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Antibiotic in swine diets: consequences of withdrawal? Part II

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In a previous edition, we discussed why antibiotic resistance and the use of antibiotics in swine diets are considered to be problematic. An obvious question then is to look at what actually happens when antibiotics are withdrawn from swine diets. In this edition we will look at whether this is necessarily a good thing and whether we create any unintended consequences when we do this. The economic benefits of including antibiotics in swine diets are clear; this is the main reason why producers include antibiotics in swine diets. Data collected from over 1,000 experiments in the United States from 1950 to 1985 showed an increase in growth rate and feed efficiency in all phases of growth; with the greatest increase in young pigs. Growth rate increased by 16.4% during the starting phase (7-25 kg ), 10.6% during the growing phase (17-49 kg), and 4.2% during the grow-finish phase (24-89 kg). Likewise, feed efficiency increase by 6.9%, 4.5% and 2.2% during the starting phase, growing phase and growing-finishing phase, respectively. When antibiotics are taken out of swine diets there has been a dramatic decrease in antibiotic resistant microorgansisms isolated from swine. But there has not necessarily been a similar decrease in antibiotic resistant bacteria of the same species and for the same antibiotic in humans. This means that bacteria isolated from hospital setting were still resistant to an antibiotic that was withdrawn from swine diets. The reason for this is not well understood but is probably the result of co-selection of the antibiotic resistant organism by some other mechanism. However, studies done in Germany, The Netherlands, and Italy, have demonstrated a significant decline in antibiotic resistant bacteria in hospital settings after specific antibiotics have been banned in food animals. Here in Manitoba we need to be investigating scientifically based alternatives. In the next issue we will look at what these alternatives are.

Effect of method of processing cassava leaves on intake, digestibility and N retention by Ba Xuyen piglets

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