Effect of dietary protein and lysine fluctuations in the absence and presence of ractopamine on performance and carcass quality of late-finishing pigs

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Two experiments with finishing pigs were conducted to evaluate the effects of fluctuating dietary CP levels and ractopamine on performance and carcass traits. In Exp. 1, a total of 408 finishing pigs (mixed sex) were assigned to 1 of 4 protein regimens. Average initial and final BW were 89 and 123 kg, respectively. Pigs on treatments 1 to 4 were fed 16, 11, 16, and 13% CP from wk 0 to 2, respectively. From wk 2 to 5, the pigs on regimens 1 to 4 were then fed 15, 18.33, 18, and 20% CP, respectively, with regimens 3 and 4 also containing supplemental ractopamine (9.9 mg/kg) from wk 2 to 5. Overall (wk 0 to 5), BW gain, G:F, loin depth, percentage of lean, and dressing percentage were improved in pigs on regimens 3 and 4 compared with those on regimens 1 and 2. No statistically significant overall (wk 0 to 5) protein sequence regimen differences occurred between the standard regimens (1 and 3) and the low-high CP regimens (2 and 4). Experiment 2 involved 172 finishing pigs (mixed sex) in 2 protein regimens. Average initial and final BW were 91 and 136 kg, respectively. The diets consisted of a control (16% CP from d 0 to 14, 18% CP + 4.95 mg of ractopamine/kg from d 14 to 24, and 18% CP + 9.9 mg of ractopamine/kg from d 24 to 35); and a low-high CP regimen (12.5% CP from d 0 to 14, 20.33% CP + 4.95 mg of ractopamine/kg from d 14 to 24, and 20.33% CP + 9.9 mg of ractopamine/kg from d 24 to 35). From d 0 to 14, pigs fed the low CP diet (12.5% CP) had reduced BW gain and G:F compared with those fed the control diet (16% CP). In contrast, from d 14 to 35, pigs on the low-high regimen had improved BW gain and G:F compared with pigs on the control regimen. Despite the wide dietary CP fluctuations for pigs in Exp. 2, performance and carcass traits were similar for both regimens over the 35-d test period. These data indicate that pigs fed deficient levels of CP and Lys for 14 d, followed by increased levels of CP and Lys during a subsequent 21-d period can recover and achieve growth performance and carcass merit equal to that achieved with a conventional protein feeding regimen. 

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Dietary supplementation with different forms of flax in late gestation and lactation: Effects on sow and litter performances, endocrinology, and immune response

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The impact of feeding flax as seed, meal, or oil to late-pregnant and lactating sows on hormone concentrations, immune responses, and sow and litter performances was studied. Sixty sows were fed 1 of 4 diets from 68 d of gestation until 21 d of lactation. Diets were standard (CTL; n = 15); 10% flaxseed supplementation (FS; n = 16); 6.5% flaxseed meal supplementation (FSM; n = 14); and 3.5% flaxseed oil supplementation (FSO, n = 15). On d 88 and 101 of gestation, sows were immunized against ovalbumin (OVA). Jugular blood samples were obtained on d 62, 88, and 110 of gestation and on d 2 and 21 of lactation to measure concentrations of estradiol, prolactin, and progesterone as well as antibody (Ab) against OVA (anti-OVA), lymphocyte proliferation, and lymphocyte production of interferon-γ (IFN-γ). Milk samples were obtained on d 3 and 20 of lactation. One piglet per litter was slaughtered on d 1 for compositional analyses, and a jugular blood sample was obtained for anti-OVA analyses. Remaining piglets were weighed on d 2, 7, 14, 21 (weaning), 28, and 56. Circulating hormone concentrations in sows were not affected by treatment overall. On d 20 of lactation, milk from FS, FSM, and FSO sows had more protein than that from CTL sows. The FSM piglets weighed more on d 56 than FS and FSO piglets. Carcasses of 1-d-old FSM piglets also had greater glycogen and DM contents than FS and FSO piglets, but organ weights and circulating concentrations of glucose and IGF-I did not differ. In CTL sows, IFN-γ production decreased between d 101 of gestation and d 2 of lactation, whereas, in FS sows, IFN-γ production increased. Anti-OVA for the whole experimental period was greater in FS than in FSO sows. Concentrations of anti-OVA in milk on d 3 of lactation and lymphocyte proliferative responses were not affected by treatments. Serum concentrations of anti-OVA in 2-d-old piglets that gained BW during the first 24 h after birth were greater in FS, FSM, and FSO litters than in CTL litters and percent mortality on d 2 and 21 postpartum was less for FS, FSM, and FSO litters compared with CTL. Therefore, feeding flax to sows may have beneficial effects on immune resistance of piglets and feeding FSM improved postweaning growth of piglets. 

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Effect of phytase and xylanase supplementation or particle size on nutrient digestibility of diets containing distillers dried grains with solubles cofermented from wheat and corn in ileal-cannulated grower pigs

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Nutrient digestibility in distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is limited by physical constraints such as particle size and by biochemical limitations such as phytate and fiber or nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP). To determine the separate effects of these limitations on nutrient digestibility, ground DDGS (383 μm) supplemented with phytase (0 or 250 units/kg of feed) and xylanase (0 or 4,000 units/kg of feed) was evaluated in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments together with unground DDGS (517 μm) and an N-free diet in a 6 × 6 Latin square. Cofermented wheat and corn DDGS contained 8.6% moisture, 31.0% CP, 1.04% Lys, 8.0% ether extract, 2.0% starch, 40% NDF, and 0.85% P (as-is basis). Diets contained 43.7% DDGS as the sole source of AA; the digesta from pigs fed the N-free diet served to subtract basal endogenous AA losses and as control for energy digestibility. Six ileal-cannulated barrows (37.1kg of BW) were fed 6 diets at 2.8 × maintenance for DE in six 9-d periods. Feces and ileal digesta were collected for 2 d each. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of GE and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of GE and NDF were 2.3, 0.5, and 5.1%-units greater for the ground than unground DDGS diet, respectively. Consequently, the ATTD of GE was 1.3%-units greater and the DE content was 0.06 Mcal/kg greater for ground than unground DDGS, respectively. Grinding of DDGS did not affect the ATTD of crude fiber, ADF, P, and Ca in diets. Grinding of DDGS increased the AID of most AA in diets including Lys, Met, and Thr by 6.9, 1.1, and 1.7%-units, respectively. Grinding of DDGS increased the SID of Lys by 6.2%-units and SID content of Lys and Thr by 0.06 and 0.02%-units, respectively. Phytase and xylanase did not interact to affect nutrient digestibility. Phytase increased the ATTD of P by 10.5%-units, but did not affect AA digestibility. Xylanase did not affect nutrient digestibility. In conclusion, particle size is an important physical characteristic affecting digestibility of energy and AA, but not P in DDGS. Phytate in DDGS limits digestibility of P, but not energy and AA. The substrate for xylanase in DDGS did not hinder energy and AA digestibility.

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Feed transition between gestation and lactation is exhibited earlier in sows fed a high-fiber diet during gestation

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The underconsumption of feed frequently observed in young sows during lactation can result from an adaptation problem of the sow to the new feeding management in terms of diet composition and feeding amount. Our study aimed to investigate how the sow manages her own feed transition when given the choice between the gestation diet and the lactation diet from moving into the farrowing crate (12 d before farrowing) until the second week postpartum. The effect of adding dietary fiber to the gestation diet on this transition was also evaluated. During gestation, 16 primiparous sows (Large White × Landrace) were fed 2.4 kg/d of a control (CON) diet (3.5% of crude fiber), or 2.9 kg/d of a high-fiber (HF) diet (12.8% of crude fiber). The daily allowance of NE was 24 MJ in both treatments. Twelve days before the expected parturition day (d −12), sows were moved into farrowing crates that were equipped with a computerized feeding device allowing the gestation and lactation diets to be supplied via 2 rewarded push buttons placed above the trough, until d 14 postpartum. The feeding transition was evaluated through the daily ratio of ingestion of the lactation diet. Feeding behavior was measured through daily feed and energy intakes, number of daily meals, meal size, and the nycthemeral distribution of feeding activity. Sows were weighed and backfat thickness was measured at the beginning and end of gestation and lactation. Piglets were weighed every week from birth until weaning. The transition to the lactation diet occurred earlier in HF sows; the 50% threshold of lactation diet ingestion was reached on d −8 and 12 in HF and CON sows, respectively. Dietary treatment did not affect the feeding pattern, and all sows presented a diurnal feeding activity. During lactation, there was an interaction between the hour of the day and the dietary treatment for the distribution of pushes on the rewarded buttons, with pushes being more spread out throughout the day in CON sows compared with HF sows. Variations in sow backfat thickness were not affected by dietary treatment, but HF sows lost more BW during lactation. Growth of piglets was not affected by dietary treatment. In conclusion, sows chose the lactation diet spontaneously on the week preceding parturition when they were fed a fibrous diet during gestation. This highlights the possible impact of such a gestation diet to promote early intake of the lactation diet.

Protein and starch concentrates of air-classified field pea and zero-tannin faba bean for weaned pigs

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Air-classified pulse (non-oilseed legume) protein and starch may replace specialty protein and starch feedstuffs in diets for weaned pigs. In Exp. 1, three specialty protein sources (5% soy protein concentrate, 5% corn gluten meal, and 5% menhaden meal in the control diet) were replaced with 16% zerotannin hulled or dehulled faba bean, or 17.5% field pea protein concentrate. In total, 192 group-housed pigs (2 gilts and 2 barrows per pen; BW = 7.5kg) were fed wheat-based diets (3.60 Mcal/kg of DE and 3.3 g of standardized ileal digestible Lys/Mcal DE) over 28 d for 12 pen observations per each of 4 diets. Overall, protein source did not affect ADFI, ADG, or G:F. Apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, GE, and P was greater for dehulled faba bean and field pea protein concentrate diets than the diet with 3 specialty protein sources. In Exp. 2, faba bean and field pea starch concentrates were compared with corn, wheat, tapioca, and potato starch as dietary energy sources. In total, 36 individually housed barrows (BW = 8.0 kg) were fed 1 of 6 diets for 15 d. Feces and urine were collected from d 8 to 14, and jugular blood was sampled after overnight fast and refeeding on d 15. Starch source did not affect N retention as a percentage of N intake. For d 0 to 14, ADFI of pigs fed field pea starch was greater than pigs fed corn, wheat, potato, and faba bean starch. Pigs fed tapioca, field pea, wheat, or corn starch grew faster than those fed faba bean or potato starch. For d 0 to 14, pigs fed corn or wheat starch had a 0.1 greater G:F than pigs fed faba bean, field pea, or potato starch. The ATTD of DM, GE, CP, and starch and the DE value of potato starch were much less than those of other starch diets. Postprandial plasma glucose was 4.9, 6.3, and 9 mmol/L greater for pigs fed tapioca than for pigs fed faba bean, wheat, and potato starch, respectively. However, postprandial plasma insulin tended to be 844 and 577 pmol/L greater for pigs fed faba bean and corn starch, respectively, than for pigs fed potato starch. The high insulin response of pigs fed faba starch could not be explained. In conclusion, air-classified pulse protein concentrates can replace specialty protein feedstuffs in diets for weaned pigs. Feeding air-classified pulse starch concentrates to starter pigs achieved a similar N retention as a percentage of N intake. The factors responsible for the reduced ADFI associated with feeding faba bean starch remain unclear. 

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Characterization of the nutritional value of air-classified protein and starch fractions of field pea and zero-tannin faba bean in grower pigs

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Most pulse (nonoilseed legume) seed flours can be fractionated rapidly and economically by air classification into protein and starch concentrates. The nutritional value of air-classified field pea and faba bean concentrates requires characterization to assess the feeding opportunity for pigs. Thus, the objectives were to characterize the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, OM, energy, starch, CP, fat, and ash; apparent ileal digestibility of CP and starch; standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA; and the SID AA, DE, and NE content of air-classified zero-tannin faba bean and field pea protein and starch concentrates in grower pigs. Pulse protein and starch concentrates were compared with soy protein concentrate and corn starch, respectively, as corresponding standards. The corn starch diet served as an N-free diet to correct for basal endogenous AA losses. In a Youden square design, 8 ileal-cannulated barrows (24.9 kg of BW) were fed 6 diets over 7 periods at 3 times the maintenance DE requirement. Periods encompassed a 5-d diet acclimation, 3-d feces collection, and 3-d ileal digesta collection. The ATTD of GE was 2% greater for faba bean than soy and was intermediate for field pea protein (95.6, 93.7, and 94.9%, respectively). The ATTD of GE was 3.6% greater for corn and field pea than faba bean starch (96.2, 95.1, and 92.3%, respectively). The DE content of faba bean was 5.0% greater than for field pea or soy protein (4.47, 4.23, and 4.26 Mcal/kg, respectively). The DE content of faba bean and field pea was 1.7% greater than for corn starch (3.72, 3.77, and 3.68 Mcal/ kg, respectively). The NE content was 5% greater for faba bean than field pea and soy protein (3.08, 2.94, and 2.92 Mcal/kg, respectively). The NE content for field pea starch was 2.0% greater than for corn starch and faba bean starch (2.68, 2.63, and 2.61 Mcal/kg, respectively). Protein concentrates had a 14 and 11% greater DE and NE content, respectively, than starch concentrates. The SID of Lys was 6.0% greater for faba bean and field pea protein than soy protein (95.5, 92.6, and 88.7%, respectively). The SID of Lys was 6.0% greater for faba bean than field pea starch. Nutrient digestibility and digestible nutrient profiles indicated that air-classified fractions of zero-tannin faba bean and field pea constitute concentrated sources of AA and energy for pigs with high nutritional demands.

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Diets containing inulin but not lupins help to prevent swine dysentery in experimentally challenged pigs

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Swine dysentery is a contagious mucohemorrhagic diarrheal disease caused by the intestinal spirochete Brachyspira hyodysenteriae that colonizes and induces inflammation of the cecum and colon. It has been reported that a diet containing chicory root and sweet lupin can prevent swine dysentery. This experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that inulin in the chicory root rather than galactans in lupins was responsible for protective effects. An experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments was undertaken using pigs fed barley- and triticale-based diets, with the main effects being protein source [185 g/kg of canola meal (decreased galactans) or 220 g/kg of lupins (greater galactans)] and inulin supplementation (0 or 80 g/kg). Forty Large White × Landrace pigs weighing 21kg, with 10 pigs per diet, were allowed to adapt to the diets for 2 wk, and then each pig was challenged orally 4 times with a broth culture containing B. hyodysenteriae on consecutive days. Pigs were killed when they showed clinical signs of dysentery or 6 wk postchallenge. Pigs fed diets without inulin had 8.3 times greater risk of developing swine dysentery and were 16 times more likely to have colon contents that were culture-positive for B. hyodysenteriae, compared with the pigs fed a diet with 80 g/kg of inulin. Diets containing lupins did not prevent pigs from developing clinical swine dysentery; however, inclusion of lupins or inulin or both in the diets delayed the onset of disease compared with the diet based mainly on canola meal. Diet did not influence the total concentration of organic acids in the ileum, cecum, or upper and lower colon; however, the molar proportions of the organic acids were influenced. Consequently the pH values in the cecum, and upper and lower colon were not influenced by diet. However the pH values of the ileal digesta were decreased in pigs fed the diet with both lupins and inulin compared with the diet containing only lupins. In conclusion, this study shows that diets supplemented with highly fermentable carbohydrates from inulin protected pigs against developing swine dysentery.

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Reproductive performance and bone status markers of gilts and lactating sows supplemented with two different forms of vitamin D

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In swine nutrition, little is known about the vitamin D requirements for reproductive processes and bone health. Consequently, the vitamin D recommendation for sows during gestation and lactation is not based on scientific reports. The current study was undertaken to obtain information on the dose-response pattern of 2 vitamin D sources, the commonly used cholecalciferol, called vitamin D3, and a newly developed Hy・D product (25-hydroxycholecalciferol). In Exp. 1, a total of 160 gilts were randomly assigned from the first estrus until d 28 of gestation to dietary treatments containing 4 concentrations of 1 of the 2 different vitamin D sources [200, 800, 1,400, and 2,000 IU/kg of vitamin D from cholecalciferol or corresponding doses of 5, 20, 35, and 50 μg/kg of feed from 25(OH)D3 (Hy・D)]. In a concurrent experiment, the same 8 dietary treatments were provided to 160 multiparous sows from the first day of mating until weaning. Plasma concentrations of 25(OH)D3 were influenced by a dose × form interaction; furthermore, plasma 25(OH)D3 concentrations were influenced by the lactation state of the sows. Irrespective of the dietary dose and form of vitamin D provided to the sows, very little vitamin D was transferred to the progeny. Reproductive performance was not influenced by dietary vitamin D treatments, except for a decreased number of stillborn piglets with the larger doses of vitamin D (1,400 and 2,000 IU of vitamin D, resulting in 1.17 and 1.13 stillborn piglets per litter, respectively) compared with the smaller doses of vitamin D (200 and 800 IU of vitamin D, resulting in 1.98 and 1.99 stillborn piglets per litter, respectively). In the gilt trial, the ultimate strength of the bones and their content of ash were greater when vitamin D3 was supplemented in doses larger than 800 IU, compared with the same amount of Hy・D supplementation. In the sow experiment, lactation day, rather than dietary vitamin D, influenced the concentrations of osteocalcin and Ca as well as the activities of total alkaline phosphatase and bone alkaline phosphatase in plasma. Age of the suckling piglets affected their plasma bone health markers. In conclusion, at doses greater than 200 IU, Hy・D was more bioavailable than vitamin D3 and, as such, could be considered an equivalent or even more advantageous source of vitamin D. In addition, a dietary dose of approximately 1,400 IU of vitamin D is recommended for reproducing swine. Irrespective of the dietary dose and form of vitamin D provided to the sows, very little vitamin D was transferred to the progeny.

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Effect of dietary supplementation of oregano essential oils to sows on colostrum and milk composition, growth pattern and immune status of suckling pigs

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This study evaluated the effects of supplementing sow diets with oregano essential oils (OEO) during gestation and lactation on sow colostrum and milk composition and on the growth pattern and immune status of suckling pigs. A total of 70 second-parity sows were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 gestation dietary treatments within 24 h after service: control (CON) or CON + 250 mg/kg of OEO (OREG). In lactation, sows were again assigned to either the CON or OREG dietary treatment. Thus, the lactation treatments were CON-CON, CON-OREG, OREG-CON, and OREG-OREG. Colostrum and blood samples were collected from 6 sows per lactation dietary treatment. Thymus lymphocyte (TL) subpopulations (cluster of differentiation 8, and 32 cluster of differentiation 4) were enumerated in blood and mammary secretions along with IGF-1, IgG, and IgA concentrations. Piglet growth rate were determined from 18, 17, 17, and 18 litters from the CON-CON, CON-OREG, OREG-CON, and OREG-OREG lactation dietary treatments, respectively. Growth rates were determined in 630 piglets, and piglets were individually identified and weighed on 1, 5, 9, 12, 16, and 19 d of age. OEO supplementation during gestation or lactation had no effect on GE, CP, GE:CP, GE:fat, and IGF-1 in sow milk. Reductions of the fat percentage in milk on d 7 and d 14 were found in sows supplemented with OEO during lactation compared with those in the CON treatment. Milk from sows supplemented with OEO during lactation had the greatest number of TL compared with those in the lactation CON treatment on d 14 of lactation. The number of TL in milk was greater for sows in the CON-OREG treatment compared with those other treatments on d 14 of lactation. Energy intake was greater on d 1 to 5 in piglets from sows fed OEO during gestation than those from sows in the CON treatment. A trend for greater milk intake was observed in piglets from sows supplemented with OEO during gestation compared with those from sows in the CON treatment. Similarly, a tendency for an increase in ADG on d 1 to 5 was found in piglets from sows supplemented with OEO during gestation compared with those from sows in the CON treatment. Insulin-like growth factor-1 at birth and on d 7 and 14 of lactation did not differ among piglets from sows assigned to the different dietary treatments. Oregano essential oil supplementation of sow diets did not affect immunoglobulin concentrations in piglets after suckling. Supplementing sow diets with OEO during gestation or lactation did not affect the TL, percentage of TL subpopulations, and natural killer cell activity of piglets during lactation. Supplementing sow diets with 250 mg/kg of OEO during gestation and lactation did not affect the growth potential of and immune responses in suckling piglets.

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Effects of increasing choice white grease in corn- and sorghum-based diets on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and fat quality characteristics of finishing pigs

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A total of 120 pigs (60 barrows and 60 gilts; TR4 × PIC 1050; 54.4 kg initial BW) were used in an 83-d study to evaluate the effects of added fat in corn- and sorghum-based diets on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and carcass fat quality. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial with grain source (corn or sorghum) and added fat (0, 2.5, or 5% choice white grease; CWG) as factors. There were 2 pigs (1 barrow and 1 gilt) per pen and 10 replicate pens per treatment. Pigs and feeders were weighed on d 14, 22, 39, 53, 67, and 83 to calculate ADG, ADFI, and G:F. At the end of the trial, pigs were slaughtered and jowl fat and backfat samples were collected and analyzed for fatty acid profile. No interactions were observed for growth performance. Pigs fed sorghum-based diets had greater ADG than pigs fed cornbased diets. Adding CWG improved ADG. Pigs fed corn-based diets tended to have greater carcass yield, 10th-rib backfat, and percentage lean than pigs fed sorghum-based diets. Adding CWG increased 10th-rib backfat, tended to increase HCW, and tended to decrease percentage lean. There was no grain source × fat level interaction for iodine value (IV) in backfat, but an interaction was observed for IV in jowl fat. Adding CWG increased IV in jowl fat for pigs fed sorghum- and corn- based diets; however, the greatest increase was between 0 and 2.5% CWG in sorghum-based diets and between 2.5 and 5% CWG in corn-based diets. Pigs fed corn-based diets had less C18:1 cis-9 and MUFA but greater C18:2n-6, PUFA, and backfat IV than pigs fed sorghum-based diets. Increasing CWG in the diet increased backfat IV. Of the 2 fat depots, backfat generally had a reduced IV than jowl fat. In summary, feeding sorghum-based diets reduced carcass fat IV and unsaturated fats compared with corn-based diets. As expected, adding CWG increased carcass fat IV regardless of the cereal grain in the diet.

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