Infections with weakly haemolytic Brachyspira species in pigs with miscellaneous chronic diseases

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The prevalence of infections with different Brachyspira species was assessed in 202 pigs with various chronic herd problems using different methods. It was shown that infections with weakly haemolytic Brachyspira spp. may contribute to colonic pathology in pigs with chronic herd problems and that mixed infections seem to occur more frequently than previously noticed.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03781135

Effect of a synthetic plate in the lying area on lying behaviour, degree of fouling and skin lesions at the leg joints of finishing pigs

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Flooring type may have a major influence on thermo-regulatory behaviour in finishing pigs, as well as on the occurrence of skin lesions at their leg joints and pen fouling. In this study, we compared the lying behaviour, pen fouling and the occurrence of leg lesions in finishing pigs kept in partly slatted pens with a concrete lying area covered with either a non-deformable synthetic plate or a small amount of straw (100 g per pig an day), or left bare, whilst controlling for the effects of temperature and pig weight.

Eighteen groups of 10 finishing pigs each were kept in six replicates in three pens with different floor types as described above. Lying behaviour was video recorded for 48 h at weights of <35 kg, 50–70 kg and >80 kg. A fouling score for the lying area was estimated daily. Pigs were examined for skin lesions around the carpal and tarsal joints upon introduction into the experimental pens at a mean weight of 28 kg (±3.9 S.D.) and four times thereafter at regular intervals until they reached 100 kg. Data were analysed using generalised linear mixed-effects models taking the hierarchical experimental design into account.

Floor type in the lying area did not affect the proportion of pigs lying laterally or sternally, or huddling. However, the proportion of pigs lying on the slatted floor was higher in pens with synthetic plate flooring compared to those with a straw layer and was even lower in pens with concrete flooring (p = 0.015). Fouling of the lying area increased as room
temperatures rose. This increase was sharper in pens with straw on the floor than in those with bare concrete flooring (interaction: p = 0.017), but did not differ between pens with a layer of straw and those with a synthetic plate flooring (interaction: p = 0.324). The likelihood of pigs having hairless patches or hyperkeratosis on the carpal joints was similar
in pens with synthetic plate flooring and in those with a layer of straw, but higher in bare concrete- floored pens. This pattern was also found with respect to the higher prevalence of adventitious bursae at the carpal joints and wounds at the tarsal joints found in pigs kept in pens with synthetic plate flooring.

In conclusion, our results indicate that the synthetic plate flooring studied may cause heat-loss problems, and does not improve floor quality in the lying area as regards skin lesions. From the point of view of pig welfare, it cannot therefore be considered a better alternative to bare concrete floors.

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues

Effect of Lameness in Pigs in Terms of “Five Freedoms”

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The concept of “five freedoms” is viewed as a tool to evaluate and represent nonhuman animal welfare. These freedoms are not mutually exclusive and differ in their extent of attainment at the farm level. At the herd level, the freedom
from pain, injury, and disease may be the most complicated freedom. Painful conditions, such as lameness in pigs, are seldom mentioned as challenges to pig welfare, regardless of their high prevalence. A disease such as lameness may affect all of the five freedoms. Lameness is often closely associated with pain, an important constituent of the five freedoms. Pain may persist for longer than the clinical signs and may not be visible due to hiding behavior. Inflammatory pain alters nociceptive information processing, leading to long-term adverse welfare consequences. Lameness can cause poor welfare and contribute to disease in a vicious cycle. A lame pig may not be able to move about and meet its feed and water requirements, taking away the freedom from hunger and thirst despite feed and water availability. At the herd level, shelter and resting areas are provided, considering the normal healthy pig, and sick pens are often devoted to extreme cases only. The absence of a “gold standard” restricts diagnosis of lameness and evaluation of the effectiveness of therapeutic measures when practiced. Lameness also hinders an animal’s ability to perform normal behavior. Often, conspecifics increase competition for resources and may aggravate the condition. The freedom from fear and distress is also violated when a pig becomes lame as the ability to demonstrate the survival instinct is physically restricted. Despite these obvious links between the effects of lameness and five freedoms, pig welfare is often
determined on easily measurable, systematically applied terms such as space allowance.

Different roughages to organic growing/finishing pigs — Influence on activity behaviour and social interactions

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The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of roughage on organic growing/finishing pigs’ activity behaviour and social interactions. It was hypothesized that access to additional roughage in the outdoor area would make the pigs use this area more frequently and change their activity pattern and access to the roughage would reduce aggressive behaviour and stress among the pigs. The results confirm that access to additional roughage in the outdoor run did encourage pigs to go outdoors more frequently. This suggests that pigs might be motivated to use the roughage to explore and forage. Although straw was provided indoors, access to additional roughage outdoors affected the pigs to be more active and reduced the aggressive behaviour among them. This indicates that roughage is an important resource that might influence the well-being and the behaviour of pigs.

Experimental enteric infection of gnotobiotic piglets with Chlamydia suis strain S45

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Enteric chlamydial infections of pigs with Chlamydia (C.) suis are frequent and often subclinical. The enteric pathogenicity of C. suis strain S45 was investigated in gnotobiotic piglets. Piglets from three litters (n = 31) were inoculated with egg-grown chlamydiae at 2–3 days of age (n = 17) or used as controls (n = 14). They were observed for clinical signs, killed and necropsied sequentially at 2–13 days postinoculation (DPI). Feces were collected daily and investigated with an ELISA for chlamydial antigen. At necropsy, specimens were collected for histopathology and for immunohistochemical, PCR-based, and serological (complement fixation test, ELISA) detection of chlamydiae. Chlamydial replication and associated symptoms and lesions were observed from 2 to 13 DPI and were particularly pronounced within the first week PI. Clinical symptoms consisted of moderate-to-severe diarrhea, slight and transient anorexia, weakness and body weight loss. Immunohistochemistry and ELISA revealed that chlamydial replication was particularly marked at 2–4 DPI and primarily located in the small intestinal villus enterocytes. Further sites of replication included large intestinal enterocytes, the lamina propria and Tunica submucosa, and the mesenteric lymphnodes. Histopathological hanges included moderate-to-severe villus atrophy with flattened enterocytes and focal
villus tip erosions, and moderate mucosal inflammatory cell infiltrates and lymphangitis in the small intestine. PCR of spleen tissue and blood was mostly negative for chlamydiae, indicating that they did not substantially disseminate into the host up to 13 DPI. All sera were negative for anti-chlamydial antibodies. In conclusion, C. suis strain S45 elicited
significant enteric disease and lesions in gnotobiotic piglets indicating its pathogenic potential for swine.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03781135

Suffering in diseased pigs as expressed by behavioural, clinical and clinical–chemical traits, in a well defined parasite model

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Based on a well-defined model disease (Sarcocystis miescheriana), we have studied behavioural patterns (lying inactive [LYWA], activity during lying [ADLY], feeding [FEED], drinking [DRNK], rooting [ROOT], walking [WALK] and social interactions [SOCB]) of pigs during stages of health (day 0, before infection), acute disease (day 14 post-infection [p.i.]), recovery (day 28 p.i.), and chronic disease (day 42 p.i.). It was found that Deviation from the populations ‘‘standard’’ activity (before infection) could be predicted with clinical–chemical parameters (e.g. alkaline phosphatase). However, further investigations on other disease models are needed to validate suitability of clinical–
chemical traits in assessing suffering and welfare in diseased pigs in the future.

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues

A Tool for On-Farm Welfare Assessment of Pigs in New Zealand

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The New Zealand Pork Industry has the Code of Welfare 2005 (Pigs) as its primary welfare legislation. It is based on 20 minimum standards and has recommendations for the care of pigs. The minimum standards are primarily facilities based.

The objective of this project was to quantify nonhuman animal-based welfare outcomes by observing pigs, pig behavior, and good husbandry. The first stage was to identify welfare indicators to assess and quantify the on-farm welfare
status of pigs. Second, a system (welfare assessment tool) had to be developed to interpret these indicators and link them through to the 20 minimum standards contained in the Code of Welfare 2005 (Pigs). In addition, the tool developed had to be a valid measure of pig health and welfare, accurate in providing a true reflection of the current welfare status, reliable and repeatable, robust and practical, clear and adaptable to allow use by a range of inspectors and production systems.

The welfare indicators were developed in consultation with parties of interest including pork producers; pork industry representatives; and technical staff, pig veterinarians, National Welfare Advisory Committee, and the Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty. The tool developed had a series of primary animalbased indicators, including vocalization/noise, appearance (skin and body condition), behavior, mobility, and feces linked to minimum standards. Supplementary
sheets were developed to expand and quantify the primary indicators listed. The animal-based indicators were scored by the assessors via a traffic light system of green, amber, and red. If an amber or red score was recorded, follow-up
action to identify the cause was undertaken to determine if there was a breach of minimum standard as per the Code of Welfare 2005 (Pigs).

A novel strategy to select Bifidobacterium strains and prebiotics as natural growth promoters in newly weaned pigs

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The main objective of this work has been to design a new strategy for identifying suitable, orally administered, natural treatments that will promote growth in weaning piglets. An in vivo screening of putative probiotic and prebiotic candidates was carried out to identify those candidates with the best ability to positively modify the piglet gut ecosystem. The diet of the weaning piglets was then supplemented with the identified probiotics and/or synbiotics, and the dose– response effects on microflora composition and intestinal tolerance were assessed. It was found that the in vivo screening procedure could be a helpful tool to identify bifidobacteria strains as putative probiotic candidates for the weaning piglet. The data show that the two different strains of bifidobacteria (R18 and Su 891), which have similar ability in improving the count of hindgut bifidobacteria, do not influence piglet growth performance in the same way. The variation in the effects of the strains underlines the advantage of using probiotic combinations as a synergistic mixture, providing a complementary effect on animal health and increasing the possibility of the probiotics to colonize the gut, albeit transiently.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/livsci

Correlating blood immune parameters and a CCT7 genetic variant with the shedding of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in swine

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In this study, 40 crossbred pigs were intranasally inoculated with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Salmonella Typhimurium) and monitored for Salmonella fecal shedding and blood immune parameters at 2, 7, 14 and 20 days post-inoculation (dpi). It was found that linking specific genes and genetic polymorphisms with the porcine immune response to Salmonella infection and shedding may identify potential markers for carrier pigs as well as targets for disease diagnosis, intervention and prevention.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03781135

The effect of sampling strategy on the estimated prevalence of welfare outcome measures on finishing pig farms

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The effect of sampling strategy on the estimates of prevalence of some welfare outcome measures was investigated as part of a larger project examining the feasibility and benefits of incorporating some on-farm welfare outcome assessments into UK Pig Farm Assurance Schemes. All finishing pigs (>40 kg) on 6 farms that had pens of 25 pigs or less were assessed for dirtiness, body lesions, tail lesions, bursae, lameness, oral behaviour and pigs requiring hospitalisation. A statistical sampling methodology was applied to the data to generate 10,000 random samples for each measure, on each farm and for every possible number of sampled pens on that farm. The 95% confidence interval range, the proportion of samples outside a ‘tolerance’ range and the proportion of samples that would wrongly classify the farm with respect to a ‘threshold’ were calculated for each measure on each farm for every possible sample size. It was found that even large sample sizes were unable to accurately reflect the whole farm for measures with very low prevalences (lameness and pigs requiring hospitalisation). For the other measures, as the number of pens sampled increased, the confidence interval range and the proportion of samples outside the ‘tolerance’ range reduced. The differing inter-pen variation in prevalence on a farm gave rise to differences in accuracy of prevalence estimates between the farms. Those farms with a true farm prevalence close to the threshold required more pens to be sampled to achieve the same level of accuracy of classification as other farms with similar confidence intervals but a more extreme prevalence. The effect of sampling on the estimate of prevalence should be considered when an accurate prevalence of the whole population is
required.

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues