Handling and Transport of Pigs: Report to Industry

Posted in: Prairie Swine Centre by admin on January 1, 2009 | No Comments

Eating Behaviour in Large Groups: Learning How Pigs Perceive Their Environment

Posted in: Prairie Swine Centre by admin on January 1, 2008 | No Comments

As we studied how finisher pigs perform in large groups we have also studied their eating behaviour. Our reasons for this extend beyond our interest in feed intake, to questions we have on how pigs perceive their environment and the impact that could have on our management. For example, when we first started working with larger groups, in this case 80 pigs in a pen, two theories existed for how pigs interacted with this large space. One theory was that to avoid unfamiliar pigs and aggression, the animals would restrict their movement to a limited area of the pen. We would call this a territory. We used 8 feeders in the pen of 80 pigs, and spaced these evenly along one of the long walls of the rectangular pen. Of 60 pigs that we observed, 80% visited all 8 of the feeders during a 24-hr period. All of the pigs ate from at least 6 of the feeders. This eating behaviour demonstrated that the pigs were not territorial, but used the entire pen. The implication was that resources, such as feed and water, did not have to be located throughout the pen, but could be concentrated, perhaps in a food-court.
We continued our studies with slightly larger groups (108 pigs/pen) but retained the spacing of feeders equidistantly along the length of the pen. The eating behaviour of pigs in large and small (18 pigs/pen) groups was remarkably similar with the exception of the first week after group formation. While pigs in large and small groups spent similar amounts of time eating during the first week, those in large groups visited feeders more often (35 times/day) than did those in small groups (25 times/day). As with the pigs in the previous study, the pigs in large groups were sampling many feeders each day. The first week after the groups were formed we saw both a reduction in average daily gain and an increase in feeder visits (but not total eating time) in large groups compared to small. We hypothesize that the need to investigate the entire pen during the first days in a large group led to many feeder visits, and contributed to a reduction in growth.
Moving on from our finding in the first study that pigs would use the entire pen, our next experimental set-up placed the feeders in the large group together near one end of the pen. Unlike the previous studies, pigs in the large group would have to travel farther from their lying area to the feeder than did the pigs in small groups. The eating behaviour of pigs in large groups changed. When the cost (effort) to get to a resource (feeder) increases, we would predict that animals would visit the resource less often, but the visits would be longer to compensate. This is what we saw in large groups. The pigs in large groups ate fewer (9.2 vs 11.7 meals/day) but longer meals (7.4 vs 5.3 min/meal), so that the total time spent eating in a day (60.4 vs 55.7 min/day) and total feed intake (2.78 vs 2.82 kg/day) were similar in large and small groups. In this same study we superimposed a crowded treatment (k = 0.025) on the group sizes. Crowded pigs also reduced the number of visits to the feeder each day, but they did not increase the length of their visits or maintain their total eating time and feed intake. The crowded pigs demonstrated a loss of appetite compared to the pigs in large groups, even though both conditions resulted in fewer meals.
Our studies on eating behaviour of pigs in large groups have demonstrated that pigs make use of the entire pen, visiting most if not all feeders regularly. The inquisitiveness leading to this extensive use of the pen is evident in a large number of feeder visits during the first week, and may contribute to poor initial growth in the system. When feeders are concentrated in one area of the pen, making it more difficult to get to a feeder, pigs in large groups reduce their number of meals, but compensate by having longer meals. The adaptability of pigs in large groups allows us to broaden the scope of our management options to include not only large groups, but also concentrated feeding areas within the pen.

Can we feed mycotoxin contaminated feed to pigs?

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Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi which may contaminate cereal grains, including barley and wheat. The contamination is especially problematic when wet, warm conditions prevail during the growing season. The ingestion of grain that is severely contaminated by DON will cause overt symptoms such as vomiting (hence the common name “vomitoxin”). Less dramatic, but more frequently observed symptoms, reduced feed intake and growth, will result when pigs consume feed with a lower concentration of the mycotoxin. The Canadian Feed Inspection Agency suggests that 1 ppm mycotoxin in feed is a safe upper limit for swine.

There are several feed additives available which reportedly reduce the impact of the mycotoxin on the pig. Modes of action vary, and include; binding the mycotoxin in the gut and preventing absorption, chemically transforming the toxin to decrease its toxicity, or enhancing immune system function.

The overall objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of these feed additives on the performance of nursery pigs fed diets contaminated with DON.

We used 5 nurseries for this experiment, 24 pens per nursery and 4 pigs per pen. Pigs were fed starter diets for 14 days before being offered the treatment diets (BW 9.02 ± 0.36 kg) for the next 14 days. All starter diets contained in-feed antibiotics.
Treatment diets were formulated to meet or exceed all requirements for pigs of this age. A positive control diet contained no contaminated corn, while the negative control diet was formulated with contaminated corn but no feed additives. Samples of corn which were pre-analyzed and shown to contain DON were used for 70% of the corn (35% in the final diet) in diets 2 to 12 to provide 2 ppm DON in the final diet. This concentration was chosen because a preliminary experiment indicated this amount would cause a measurable reduction in feed intake but would not be fatal.
Performance results are shown in Table 1. Pigs on the positive control tended to be heavier than those on the negative control by day 22 (0.50 kg, P = 0.09). Overall, pigs consuming diets contaminated with DON had reduced ADG and ADFI compared to those consuming the positive control diet free of DON (P < 0.001). Weekly measurements of body weight and feed intake showed that the decline in feed intake preceded the decline in growth (data not shown). Average daily gain and ADFI of pigs on the positive control was superior to those consuming the DON contaminated diet, regardless of the feed additive used. None of the feed additives ameliorated the effects of DON on feed intake or gain. Feed efficiency was unaffected by treatment (P > 0.05).
Based on a literature search and our preliminary experiment which indicated that 2 ppm would elicit a detectable decrease in feed intake but was non-fatal, we formulated the treatment diets to this level. Analyses of the diets indicated a mean concentration in the DON containing diets of 1.99 ppm, however, the individual diet concentrations ranged from 1.57 to 2.61 ppm.
The 1 tonne totes of contaminated corn were initially sampled from about 10 different locations within each tote to a depth of about 1 metre. These samples, composited by tote, were sent to two different labs for analyses for DON and moulds. The results were extremely variable, within and between the labs. Results from lab “A” ranged from 2.4 to 5.5 ppm with a mean of 4.5 while the results from lab “B” were 2.2 to 9.6 ppm and a mean of 6.9. We didn’t use the totes which displayed the most variability, however, the DON concentrations in our diets were still quite variable (Table 1).
The above illustrates the difficulty of working with mycotoxins. Obtaining representative samples for mycotoxin testing is very difficult, however it is imperative that a good sample is obtained or the results will be irrelevant. It has been estimated that almost 90% of the error associated with mycotoxin testing can be attributed to the method used to obtain the original sample. Because contamination within a field may be localized, a truck-load which has come directly from a field at harvest is likely to contain only discrete areas of contamination. Moreover, mycotoxin contaminated grains are heavier, thus within a truckload or during storage, some stratification may occur.
The “Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA) of the USDA only recognizes samples which have been obtained using a probe. Moreover, at least 4 samples should be taken from each lot, preferably 7 to 9, depending on the size and thickness of the trailer. A 2000 to 2500 gram sample should be obtained. This sample should be ground and then subsampled to obtain the approximately 100 gram sample required by the lab. Producers are advised to contact the laboratory they will be using for the analyses to obtain specific sampling procedures and amounts required.
In summary, when nursery pigs were fed diets contaminated with approximately 2 ppm DON, feed intake declined by 10 % and growth by 7%. None of the feed additives mitigated this response, however, actual concentrations of DON in the test diets varied. This variability is an illustration of the difficulties inherent in correct sampling and analysis for mycotoxins.

Twenty Three Steps to An Improved Barn Environment

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MANURE MANAGEMENT

1) Repair and replace penning, flooring, etc. which causes spilled water, or manure and urine to lie on floors and alleyways. This raises ammonia and humidity levels in the winter and reduces the room temperature, as it takes energy to evaporate this liquid.
2) Check slats and penning support ledges for locations where manure can build-up. This provides a haven for flies and causes similar problems to 1) above.
3) Never allow manure to build up closer than 12″ to the bottom of the slats. Gas begins to enter the confinement area and effect performance if manure builds up beyond this level.
4) Check for leaks through manure pump out ports, under manure pit dividers, etc. Air entering rooms this way increases gas production from the manure and can cause extreme health problems.
5) Flush manure from gravity flow pits within 15-20 days maximum. Recharge the pits with a few inches of fresh/wash water to absorb ammonia and reduce potential for solids build up.
6) Ensure radiant heat lamps direct heat onto solid pads. Light passing through slats will heat the manure below and increase gas production.

VENTILATION

7) If there is a pit tube/duct ventilation system, be sure to check it periodically for solids/manure build-up.
8) Repair leaking waterers immediately. Keep replacements handy.
9) Verify adequate flow at water nipples to see if there are problems. Check during high flow times. Since 70 % of water is consumed during feeding, morning or late afternoon is best. If some form of water based cooling is used, it will mean the heaviest load occurs during late afternoon; check when the cooling systems is operating.
10) Ensure that the mechanical ventilation system is performing as required. Use a static pressure gauge to adjust air inlets; Set @ 0.04″ in the summer, 0.08″ in the winter.
11) Verify inlet openings are correct with a velocity meter such as the Dwyer High Air Speed Indicator.
12) Ensure inlets are of good quality and properly located to mix fresh air uniformly and reduce drafts.
13) Adjust minimum winter ventilation to achieve a relative humidity (RH)of 50-70% . Too high causes health problems from air-borne pathogens. Too low wastes increase heating costs and can also cause health problems. An inexpensive digital relative humidity instrument is a good device for checking relative humidity as well as temperature.
14) Verify heaters, fans/shutters and controls are all maintained.
15) If air is drawn in from the attic in summer, ensure temperature rise is less than
1.5 0 C. Exterior roof sheathing should be white, or a layer of insulation on the underside of the roof will also help to reduce solar heat gain.
16) Check and maintain insulation levels. It not only reduces heat load on the building, it reduces the thermal environment effects due to reduced radiation (winter) and excessive radiation (summer).
17) Consider some form of cooling appropriate to the type of production room; spray cooling, evaporative cooling pads, stirring fans, tunnel ventilation, earth tube cooling, etc. A 3-7 C 0 cooling benefit with a resulting improved feed consumption is achievable.
18) Monitor temperature with a good quality digital maximum/minimum thermometer in every room. Older style mercury thermometers do not respond quickly enough.

MISCELLANEOUS

19) Ensure pigs receive adequate light for at least 10 h/d (Recommended Code of Practise for the Care and Handling of Farm Animals (Pigs) ). Use fluorescent tube fixtures or high intensity discharge (HID) to achieve this economically. Paint walls and ceilings white. Keep surfaces and lighting fixtures clean to ensure maximum reflectivity.
21) Consider the installation of windows to improve the environment for management. They add very little to heat load and can provide a psychological lift.
22) Install a good quality alarm system. It should be independent of controls, be battery backed up and lightning protected, and managed so that response to alarm is less than 15 minutes. A back up generator or other emergency contingency plan should be well formulated in advance to reduce potential for animal suffering and loss. It should operate off all minimum ventilation fans and hi/low temperature in each room.
23) Conduct a ” Barn Health Audit” on the manure, ventilation, and lighting systems at least every spring and fall. Consider having independent experts out to conduct the audit for you.

Handling Stress During Marketing of Pigs from Large Groups

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We have previously shown that pigs from large groups are more socially tolerant than pigs from conventional small groups and will fight less when re-grouped, as happens during marketing. This study was conducted to compare the differences in handling attributes, stress responses, and meat quality of pigs between small conventional pens and large group auto sort pens. When handled through the same facilities, pigs from large and small groups required similar levels of force during handling. However, pigs from large groups tended to load more quickly. Pigs from the two treatments had similar physiological responses to handling. When given adequate lairage time to recover from handling and transportation, meat quality was similar between group size treatments. However, pigs from small groups had a higher degree of marbling, higher light reflectance and also a redder colour. The trends, although not statistically significant, would suggest conventional small group pigs respond slightly more to stress than large group pigs.

Eating Behaviour in Large Groups: Learning How Pigs Perceive Their Environment

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In order to determine how finisher pigs perceive their environment and the impact that could have on our management we looked at their eating behaviour in both large, small and crowded group situations. Our studies on eating behaviour of pigs in large groups have demonstrated that pigs make use of the entire pen, visiting most if not all feeders regularly. The inquisitiveness leading to this extensive use of the pen is evident in a large number of feeder visits during the first week, and may contribute to poor initial growth in the system. When feeders are concentrated in one area of the pen, making it more difficult to get to a feeder, pigs in large groups reduce their number of meals, but compensate by having longer meals. Crowded pigs also reduced their number of meals, but they did not increase the length of feeding or maintain their total eating time and feed intake. The crowded pigs demonstrated a loss of appetite compared to the pigs in large groups, even though both conditions resulted in fewer meals. Therefore, the adaptability of pigs in large groups allows us to broaden the scope of our management options to include not only large groups, but also concentrated feeding areas within the pen.

Gestation Housing Alternatives: Sows in a Deep-Bedded Cafeteria-Fed System

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This project consisted of two studies in which we compared the performance and welfare of sows in either conventional stalls or a large group, deep-bedded cafeteria-fed system. In the first study all sows were placed into breeding stalls at weaning. Following the second mating, sows were moved into either a section of stalls for implantation, or into the group pens. In the second study an additional treatment was applied within the group system. Half of the groups were formed at 35 days post-mating rather than immediately following the second mating. Housing sows in large groups, in a deep-bedded cafeteria-fed system had both advantages and disadvantages compared to stall housing. Grouped sows fought at the time of mixing, more so if grouped shortly after mating, but aggression dropped off within a week. Scratches were more frequent when animals were grouped, but also increased when sows were moved to new stalls. Abrasions were more common in stalled sows. Stalled sows also had a higher incidence of locomotion problems, including lameness requiring culling, than did sows on the deep litter. Stalled sows evidenced physiological changes indicative of long term stress. Productivity was affected only if sows were grouped within a few days of mating. In general, group housing resulted in acute, short lived welfare problems, while the results from stall housing were indicative of long term, chronic stress.

Equilibrium Sampling Used to Monitor Malodors in a Swine Waste Lagoon

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The concentrations of malodorous compounds in a 0.4-ha
anaerobic lagoon that received waste from approximately 2000
sows were monitored during the late summer to late fall of 2006. It was found that the increases in the
concentrations of malodorous compounds in the wastewater during the fall were due to reduced degradation by
lagoon bacteria, less wind stripping of volatile compounds from the lagoon surface due to lowering of the lagoon
surface after crop application, and/or reduced evaporation of malodorous compounds due to falling temperatures.

Inherent Food Safety of a Synthetic Gonadotropin-Releasing Factor (GnRF) Vaccine for the Control of Boar Taint in Entire Male Pigs

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The inherent food safety of a novel gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF) vaccine,intended to be administered by injection to male pigs for the control of boar taint, was confirmed using several animal models. In addition to conventional oral bioavailability studies, an experiment was also performed to check for the presence of a direct hormonal effect of the vaccine antigen. It was confirmed that there is no risk to human health from the consumption of pork from pigs administered this boar taint vaccine.

Farmers and pigs both colonized with Staphylococcus in southwestern Ontario

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In a four-month study ending in January 2007, researchers
collected nasal and rectal swabs from 285 pigs of three
different age groups from 20 different farms. Nasal swabs
were collected from farm personnel and a brief questionnaire
was also administered. Nine out of 20 farms studied, or 45 per cent, were positive
for MRSA. Prevalence in pigs was 24.9 per cent with no
difference in colonization between age groups. Twenty per
cent of pig farmers tested positive for MRSA and researchers
found a correlation between the presence of MRSA in pigs
and humans on farms. The study’s senior author, Dr. Scott Weese of the
Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College,
University of Guelph, says that the study left researchers
with a number of unanswered questions. “We need to find
out how broad this is,” Weese says. “We need to find out
how representative southern Ontario is compared to the
rest of North America.” One of the interesting findings in Weese’s study is that
one of the farms with the highest rate of MRSA was an
antibiotic-free farm. “I think it’s overly simplistic to say that antibiotic use in pigs is the sole reason this has emerged.
There’s gotta be something else going on.”