Effect of reduced dietary calcium concentration and phytase supplementation on calcium and phosphorus utilization in weanling pigs with modified mineral status

Posted in: Environment, Production by admin on August 5, 2011 | No Comments

The present study was conducted to assess the effect of 2 dietary Ca concentrations on P and Ca digestive and metabolic utilization in weanling pigs fed diets providing practical concentrations of P, with or without phytase. The responses of pigs fed diets adequate or moderately deficient in Ca and P postweaning were compared. A total of 60 pigs weaned at 28 d of age were used. Two groups of 30 pigs with differing mineral status resulted from a 10-d depletion period, during which the animals received depletion diets (DD) that consisted of corn-soybean meal with either 1.42% Ca and 0.80% P (DD+) or 0.67% Ca and 0.43% P (DD−), designed to achieve the same Ca:digestible P ratio. At the end of the depletion period, a plasma sample was taken from each pig and 12 pigs (6 from each group) were slaughtered for bone assessment to establish the baseline mineral status. The animals fed the DD− diet had signs of P deficiency with reduced plasma P (13%) and femur ash concentration (8%), and increased plasma Ca (9%) and alkaline phosphatase activity (31%). For the subsequent 25-d period, the remaining 24 pigs from each group were fed 1 of 4 repletion diets: 1) 0.56% P, 1.06% Ca; 2) 0.56% P, 0.67% Ca; 3) diet 1 + 1,000 phytase units (FTU) of Natuphos phytase/kg; and 4) diet 2 + 1,000 FTU of Natuphos phytase/kg. Total feces and urine were collected from d 5 to 11, and a blood sample was taken from each pig at d 11 and 25. The initial moderate P deficiency (DD−) stimulated Ca absorption (5%), irrespective of the repletion diet, and stimulated P absorption (5%; DD × phytase) , only when the diets contained phytase. At the end of the repletion period, because of these compensatory phenomena, the depleted pigs achieved full recovery of femur DM and ash weight when they received phytase, whereas ash concentration tended to remain reduced by 3%. Phosphorus digestibility was improved in the diets supplemented with phytase (73.0 vs. 56.0%), whereas an increase in dietary Ca decreased P digestibility (65.6 vs. 63.4%). Those 2 effects were independent, indicating that dietary Ca reduced equally P digestibility with and without phytase and did not influence the efficiency of phytase in releasing P in the digestive tract. In pigs fed diets with phytase, however, the reduction of Ca (Ca:P from 1.9 to 1.3) increased urinary P losses 5-fold. Those extra losses were due to a lack of Ca for skeleton ash deposition, resulting in a 4% reduction in femur ash concentration. In the end, reducing the dietary Ca:P from 1.9 to 1.3 in a practical diet containing 0.56% P did not improve the efficiency of phytase in releasing P. Moreover, the reduction in dietary Ca (Ca:P) caused an imbalance between Ca and P that impaired bone mineralization.

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Effect of maternal fish oil and seaweed extract supplementation on colostrum and milk composition, humoral immune response, and performance of suckled piglets

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An experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments (n = 10 sows/treatment) was conducted to investigate the effect of maternal dietary supplementation with seaweed extract (SWE: 0 vs. 10.0 g/d) and fish oil (FO) inclusion (0 vs. 100 g/d) from d 109 of gestation until weaning (d 26) on sow colostrum and milk composition, humoral immune response on d 5 and 12 of lactation, and suckling piglet performance. Furthermore, the influence of dietary treatment on the phagocytic activity of whole blood white cells at weaning was examined. The SWE (10 g) contained laminarin (1 g), fucoidan (0.8 g), and ash (8.2 g) and was extracted from a Laminaria spp. The FO contained approximately 40% eicosapentaenoic acid and 25% docosahexaenoic acid. The SWE-supplemented sows had greater colostrum IgG and milk protein concentrations on d 12 of lactation compared with non-SWE-supplemented sows. Piglets suckling SWE-supplemented sows had greater serum IgG and IgA concentrations on d 5 and IgG concentrations on d 12 of lactation compared with those suckling non SWE-supplemented sows. In contrast, FO supplementation exerted a suppressive effect on piglet serum IgA concentrations on d 5 of lactation compared with non- FO-supplemented diets. Dietary FO supplementation enhanced the n-3 PUFA proportion of sow milk and piglet serum at weaning. Piglets suckling SWE-supplemented sows had a greater percentage of Escherichia coli phagocytizing leukocytes and a reduced percentage of E. coli phagocytizing lymphocytes compared with non-SWEsupplemented sows. Piglets suckling FO-supplemented sows had a greater percentage of leukocytes and lymphocytes phagocytizing E. coli compared with non-FO-supplemented sows. However, total leukocyte, lymphocyte, monocyte, and neutrophil numbers were not influenced by sow dietary treatment. Average piglet weaning weight and ADG between birth and weaning were not influenced by sow dietary treatment. In conclusion, the current study demonstrates that SWE supplementation from d 109 of gestation until weaning enhanced colostral IgG concentrations and circulatory IgG concentrations in suckled piglets on d 5 and 12 of lactation. Furthermore, the percentage of leukocytes and lymphocytes phagocytizing E. coli at weaning increased in piglets suckling FO-supplemented sows, indicating an enhancement of immune function against presenting pathogens. However, the combination of SWE and FO bestowed no positive effect on immune responses investigated in the current study.

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Effect of distillers dried grains with solubles and ractopamine (Paylean) on quality and shelf-life of fresh pork and bacon

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Pigs (n = 240) were allotted in a 5 × 2 factorial arrangement with 5 levels of distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS): 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60%, and 2 ractopamine (RAC) levels: 0 and 5 mg/kg. Four pigs per pen (2 barrows, 2 gilts) closest to pen mean BW were used for meat quality evaluation. Loins (n = 119) were evaluated for objective color; moisture and fat; subjective color, marbling, and firmness; and drip loss. Bellies (n = 119) were evaluated for weight, length, width, thickness, objective fat color, and firmness. Cured bellies were evaluated for pump yield, cook loss, and sliced bacon cook loss. Loin thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were evaluated on enhanced (salt and phosphate) boneless chops held in modified atmosphere (80% O2/20% CO2) packages for 0, 7, 14, and 21 d. Bacon TBARS were evaluated on sliced bacon held in vacuum packages for 0, 28, 56, and 84 d. Fat samples were collected from each jowl and belly and evaluated for fatty acid profile and iodine value (IV). Increasing DDGS decreased subjective marbling and firmness, and increased drip loss. Distillers dried grains with solubles did not affect loin pH, subjective or objective color, percent moisture, or percent fat. The RAC decreased subjective color, marbling, and a*. Increasing DDGS decreased belly weight, length, thickness, and firmness; decreased belly fat L*; and increased belly cook loss. Ractopamine did not affect any belly measurements, and there were no DDGS × RAC interactions. Distillers dried grains with solubles did not affect loin TBARS at 0, 7, or 14 d. At 21 d, loin TBARS from 30, 45, and 60% DDGS groups were increased compared with 0 and 15% groups. Ractopamine did not affect loin TBARS, and there were no DDGS × RAC interactions. Distillers dried grains with solubles and RAC did not affect bacon TBARS. Increasing DDGS increased belly and jowl IV, and decreased MUFA:PUFA in belly and jowl fat. Ratio of SFA:unsaturated fatty acids decreased in jowl and belly fat. Ractopamine did not affect fatty acid profiles or IV, and there were no DDGS × RAC interactions. Results indicate that increased DDGS have minimal effects on loin quality, but decrease belly quality, bacon processing characteristics, and fat stability. Ractopamine does not negatively affect these characteristics and does not interact with DDGS.

Nonsolar energy use and one-hundred-year global warming potential of Iowa swine feedstuffs and feeding strategies

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Demand for nonsolar energy and concern about the implications of fossil fuel combustion have encouraged examination of energy use associated with agriculture. The United States is a global leader in pig production, and the United States swine industry is centered in Iowa. Feed is the largest individual input in pig production, but the energy consumption of the Iowa swine feed production chain has yet to be critically examined. This analysis examines nonsolar energy use and resulting 100-yr global warming potential (GWP) associated with the swine feed production chain, beginning with cultivation of crops and concluding with diet formulation. The nonsolar energy use and accompanying 100-yr GWP associated with production of 13 common swine feed ingredients are estimated. Two diet formulation strategies are considered for 4 crop sequence × ingredient choice combinations to generate 8 crop sequence × diet formulation scenarios. The first formulation strategy (simple) does not include synthetic AA or phytase. The second strategy (complex) reduces CP content of the diet by using l-lysine to meet standardized ileal digestibility lysine requirements of pigs and includes the exogenous enzyme phytase. Regardless of crop sequence × diet formulation scenario, including the enzyme phytase is energetically favorable and reduces the potential excretion of P by reducing or removing inorganic P from the complete diet. Including l-lysine reduces the CP content of the diet and requires less nonsolar energy to deliver adequate standardized ileal digestible lysine than simply feeding soybean meal. Replacing soybean meal with full-fat soybeans is not energetically beneficial under Iowa conditions. Swine diets including dried distillers grains with solubles and crude glycerol require approximately 50% more nonsolar energy inputs than corn-soybean meal diets or cornsoybean meal diets including oats. This study provides essential information on cultivation, processing, and manufacture of swine feed ingredients in Iowa that can be coupled with other models to estimate the nonsolar energy use and 100-yr GWP of pig production.

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Fermented soybean meal as a vegetable protein source for nursery pigs: I. Effects on growth performance of nursery pigs

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Four experiments were conducted using 671 nursery pigs to evaluate fermented soybean meal (FSBM) as a new vegetable protein source for nursery pigs. In Exp. 1, a total of 192 pigs weaned at 19.2 d of age were fed 3 diets (8 pens per treatment) for 2 wk: a control diet (without FSBM) and 2 diets with 3 and 6% FSBM replacing soybean meal, followed by a common diet for the next 2 wk. In Exp. 2, a total of 160 pigs weaned at 21.6d of age were fed 4 diets (5 pens per treatment) for 2 wk: a control diet (without FSBM but with 25% dried skim milk; DSM) and 3 diets with 3, 6, and 9% FSBM replacing DSM based on CP. Concentrations of CP, Lys, Met, Thr, and Trp were kept consistent among diets in Exp. 1 and 2. In Exp. 3, a total of 144 pigs weaned at 22.1d of age were fed 3 diets (6 pens per treatment) for 2 wk: a control diet (without FSBM but with 40% DSM) and 2 diets with 5 and 10% FSBM replacing DSM based on CP. Concentrations of CP, Lys, Met, Thr, Trp, and lactose were kept consistent among diets. In Exp. 4, a total of 175 pigs weaned at 20.7d of age were fed 5 diets (5 pens per treatment) for 3 wk: a basal diet [15.5% CP without plasma protein (PP) and FSBM], 2 diets (18.4% CP) with 3.7% PP or 4.9% FSBM, and 2 diets (21.2% CP) with 7.3% PP or 9.8% FSBM. Concentrations of Lys, Met, Thr, and Trp were kept consistent among diets with the same CP concentrations. Pigs had access to feed and water ad libitum and their BW and feed intake were measured weekly for all experiments. Use of up to 6% FSBM replacing soybean meal improved G:F and diarrhea scores of nursery pigs (Exp. 1). Use of up to 9% FSBM replacing DSM reduced ADG and G:F (Exp. 2). When lactose concentrations were equal, FSBM could replace up to 10% DSM without adverse effects on ADG and G:F (Exp. 3). Relative bioavailability of protein in FSBM to PP was 99.1% (Exp. 4). Collectively, FSBM can serve as an alternative protein source for nursery pigs at 3 to 7 wk of age, possibly replacing the use of DSM and PP but excluding the first week postweaning for PP when balancing for AA and lactose.

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Effect of the form of dietary fat and the concentration of dietary neutral detergent fiber on ileal and total tract endogenous losses and apparent and true digestibility of fat by growing pigs

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An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of the form of dietary fat (extracted or intact fat) and of dietary NDF on ileal and total tract endogenous losses of fat (ELF), on apparent ileal (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of fat, and on true ileal (TID) and true total tract digestibility (TTTD) of fat in growing pigs. A cornstarch based basal diet that contained 1.27% fat was prepared and 3 diets were formulated by adding 2.0, 4.0, or 6.0% extracted fat (corn oil) to the basal diet at the expense of cornstarch. Three additional diets were formulated by adding 3.1, 6.2, or 9.3% Solka-Floc (International Fiber Corp., North Tonawanda, NY) to the diet containing 4.0% corn oil at the expense of cornstarch. The remaining 4 diets were prepared by adding whole corn germ meal to the diet at the expense of defatted corn germ meal to contain 3.0, 6.0, or 9.0% intact fat. Solka- Floc was also included in this diet at the expense of cornstarch in an attempt to keep NDF constant. Eleven barrows (initial average BW of 38.1 kg) were fitted with a T-cannula in the distal ileum, allotted to the 11 diets in an 11 × 11 Latin square design, and fed the diets at 3 times the energy requirement for maintenance. Increasing dietary extracted fat increased (linear and quadratic) the AID and ATTD of fat. Increasing dietary intact fat also increased (linear and quadratic) the AID and ATTD of fat. The average apparent digestibility of extracted fat (81.9%) was greater than that of intact fat (63.2%). Estimates of ELF were smaller for extracted fat than for intact fat at the end of the ileum and over the entire intestinal tract, but the TID (93.8%) and TTTD (94.2%) of extracted fat were greater than the TID (78.6%) and TTTD (84.1%) of intact fat. Increasing dietary extracted fat had no effects on the TID and TTTD of fat, but increasing dietary intact fat resulted in a quadratic reduction in the TTTD of fat. Increasing dietary NDF had a quadratic effect on the ATTD of fat but did not influence the AID, TID, and TTTD of fat. In conclusion, extracted fat induces a smaller amount of ELF and has a greater apparent and true digestibility than intact fat at the end of the ileum and over the entire intestinal tract. Purified NDF has little influence on apparent and true digestibility of fat.

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Effect of phytase on apparent total tract digestibility of phosphorus in corn-soybean meal diets fed to finishing pigs

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Five experiments were conducted to investigate the ability of different phytase products to improve P digestibility in finishing pigs. A corn-soybean meal basal diet containing 0.50% Ca, 0.32% P, and 0.40% Cr2O3 was used to calculate apparent P and GE digestibility. Pigs were individually penned and fed their respective diet for ad libitum intake for 12 d before fecal sampling on d 13 and 14 and blood collection on d 14 for plasma P determination. Experiments 1 through 4 used gilts with across-trial average initial and final BW of 84 and 97 kg, respectively. Pigs were fed Natuphos (Exp. 1), OptiPhos (Exp. 2), Phyzyme (Exp. 3), or RonozymeP (Exp. 4) at 0, 200, 400, 600, 800, or 1,000 phytase units (FTU)/kg (where 1 FTU is defined as the quantity of enzyme required to liberate 1 μmol of inorganic P per min, at pH 5.5, from an excess of 15 μmol/L of sodium phytate at 37°C). Experiment 5 used barrows with initial and final BW of 98 and 111 kg, respectively, and were fed diets containing 0, 500, or 1,000 FTU/kg of Natuphos, OptiPhos, Phyzyme, or RonozymeP. Pigs fed Natuphos (Exp. 1) and OptiPhos (Exp. 2) exhibited a linear and quadratic improvement in P digestibility with increasing levels of dietary phytase, whereas pigs fed Phyzyme (Exp. 3) and RonozymeP (Exp. 4) exhibited a linear improvement in apparent P digestibility with increasing levels of dietary phytase. In Exp. 5, the improvement in apparent P digestibility with increasing levels of dietary phytase was linear for Natuphos, Phyzyme, and RonozymeP, but was linear and quadratic for OptiPhos. Based on regression analysis, inorganic P release at 500 FTU/kg was predicted to be 0.070, 0.099, 0.038, and 0.030% for Natuphos, OptiPhos, Phyzyme, and RonozymeP, respectively. These estimates are comparable with those of pigs in Exp. 5, for which the estimated inorganic P release at 500 FTU/kg was 0.102, 0.039, and 0.028% for OptiPhos, Phyzyme, and RonozymeP, respectively, but not for the 0.034% value determined for Natuphos. The effect of dietary phytase on GE digestibility was inconsistent with a linear improvement in GE digestibility noted for OptiPhos (Exp. 2 and 5) and RonozymeP (Exp. 4), but the quadratic improvement for Natuphos. There was no effect of dietary phytase on plasma inorganic P. The data presented show clear improvements in P digestibility, with the estimated level of inorganic P release being dependent on phytase source and level.

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Observations of market pigs following transport to a packing plant

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A field study was conducted to record observations of 41,744 market-weight pigs upon arrival at a commercial abattoir to evaluate the relationships between various independent factors and open-mouth breathing, skin discoloration, lameness, unloading time, and mortality during transport. Observations were recorded from 242 trailer loads on 46 separate days over a period of 14 mo. Travel time (<2.5 h or ≥2.5 h), wait time before unloading (<20 min or ≥20 min), loading pressure (<260 kg of BW/m2 trailer floor space or ≥260 kg of BW/m2 trailer floor space), ambient temperature while unloading (<17°C or ≥17°C), and trailer type [potbelly (PB); straight-deck with conventional unloading doors (SDC); or straight-deck with wide unloading doors (SDW)] were recorded for each load. Open-mouth breathing was more prevalent in pigs when transported on PB trailers compared with that of SDC or SDW trailers, and at warmer temperatures (≥17°C). Skin discoloration was more prevalent among pigs unloaded at temperatures ≥17°C. Lameness was more prevalent after shorter travel times at greater loading pressure compared with shorter travel times at decreased loading pressure. Unloading time for PB trailers was longer than for SDC and SDW. Mortality rates during transport were minimal (0.06%) in the deliveries that we observed, and there were no significant relationships between mortality and any independent variable tested. Wait time before unloading was not associated with any of the dependent variables included in the statistical model. In conclusion, warmer ambient temperatures (≥17°C) and the use of PB trailers are associated with an increased incidence of open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration, and longer unloading times after the transport of market pigs.

Effects of fermented soybean meal and specialty animal protein sources on nursery pig performance

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In 2 experiments, 602 pigs were used to evaluate the effects of fish meal, fermented soybean meal, or dried porcine solubles on phase 2 nursery pig performance. In Exp. 1, nursery pigs (n = 252; PIC TR4 × 1050; 6.8 kg initial BW and 7 d after weaning) were fed: 1) a control diet containing no specialty protein sources and the control diet with 2) 5% fish meal, 3) 3.5% dried porcine solubles, 4) 6.0% fermented soybean meal, 5) a combination of 1.75% fermented soybean meal and 1.75% dried porcine solubles, or 6) a combination of 3.0% fermented soybean meal and 2.5% fish meal. There were 7 replications with 6 pigs per pen. Experimental diets were fed for 14 d, and then all pigs were fed a common diet without specialty protein sources for 14 d. From d 0 to 14, pigs fed dried porcine solubles alone or with fermented soybean meal had improved ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed all other diets. Overall (d 0 to 28), pigs fed dried porcine solubles had improved ADG (421 vs. 383 g) and G:F (0.77 vs. 0.73) compared with pigs fed the control diet and had improved G:F (0.77 vs. 0.74) compared with pigs fed the combination of fermented soybean meal and fish meal. In Exp. 2, nursery pigs (n = 350; PIC C22 × 1050; 6.1 kg initial BW and 7 d after weaning) were fed 1) a control diet containing no specialty protein sources and the control diet with 2) 3% fish meal, 3) 6% fish meal, 4) 3.75% fermented soybean meal, 5) 7.50% fermented soybean meal, 6) a combination of 1.88% fermented soybean meal and 1.88% dried porcine solubles, or 7) a combination of 3.75% fermented soybean meal and 3.75% dried porcine solubles. There were 10 replications with 5 pigs per pen. Experimental diets were fed from d 0 to 14, and then all pigs were fed a common diet without specialty protein sources for 21 d. From d 0 to 14, pigs fed increasing fish meal had increased ADFI. Pigs fed increasing fermented soybean meal had improved G:F. Pigs fed the combination of fermented soybean meal and dried porcine solubles had improved ADG and G:F compared with pigs fed diets containing fish meal and had improved ADG and ADFI compared with pigs fed diets containing fermented soybean meal. Overall (d 0 to 35), pigs fed diets with increasing amounts of fermented soybean meal had improved G:F. Feeding nursery pigs diets containing dried porcine solubles, either alone or in combination with fermented soybean meal, can improve growth performance compared with those fed high concentrations of soybean meal or fish meal.

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Efficacy of commercial enzymes in diets containing various concentrations and sources of dried distillers grains with solubles for nursery pigs

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In 2 experiments, 530 pigs were used to evaluate the effects of adding commercial enzymes to diets containing dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) on pig growth performance. In the first experiment, 180 pigs (9.0 kg initial BW) were fed a cornsoybean meal-based control diet, a diet containing 30% corn DDGS, or the 30% DDGS diet with 0.05% of enzyme A, B, or C. There were 6 pigs per pen and 6 pens per treatment. Overall (d 0 to 27), neither DDGS nor enzyme addition increased ADG and G:F. Pigs fed enzyme B had decreased ADG as a result of a tendency for decreased ADFI compared with control pigs or pigs fed DDGS without added enzyme.  In Exp. 2, 350 pigs (11.0 kg initial BW) were fed 1 of 10 dietary treatments. Pigs were fed a control corn-soybean meal-based diet or the control diet containing 15 or 30% DDGS from 3 sources (corn, sorghum 1, or sorghum 2). Diets containing 30% DDGS were fed with or without the same enzyme (enzyme A) as Exp. 1. There were 5 pigs per pen and 7 pens per treatment. Overall (d 7 to 28), there were no enzyme × DDGS source interactions observed. Corn DDGS did not influence ADG, ADFI, or G:F. Sorghum DDGS reduced G:F, with no difference between sorghum DDGS sources. Adding the commercial enzyme to the 30% DDGS diets did not improve performance. In summary, feeding diets with sorghum DDGS resulted in poorer G:F with no change in ADG compared with feeding the control diet or diets containing corn DDGS. Adding the enzymes used in this study to corn-soybean meal-based diets containing 30% DDGS did not improve growth performance.

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/