Group housing of sows in early pregnancy: A review of success and risk factors

Posted in: Environment, Production, Welfare by admin on July 26, 2011 | No Comments

A recent telephone survey of 735 Dutch farmers with group housing of sows in early pregnancy suggested a wide variation in reproductive success, irrespective of husbandry system. The reason for these differences between farms is not known, but of great importance to the pig industry which is moving worldwide from individual to group housing systems, mainly for animal welfare reasons. Therefore, the aim of this review is to list the most likely success and risk factors for group housing of sows in early pregnancy, in relation to reproduction (such as pregnancy rate) and animal welfare (such as aggression and health). The review first considers a limited number of group housing comparisons and finds that the results of the few studies performed are not very conclusive, neither on fertility nor on leg problems, longevity and welfare of sows. As a consequence, it is hard to draw any significant practical conclusions, and the review proceeds to look at studies in which single factors were addressed. For the effects on fertility it is concluded that especially factors causing chronic stress (e.g. due to unfavourable social, management or climatic conditions) and a low feed intake may impact reproductive performance. The vulnerable period lies in weeks 2 and 3 of pregnancy. On leg problems and longevity an important factor seems to be the quality of the floor, regardless of other aspects of the housing system. The use of straw seems to be advantageous. Finally, on aggression it is argued that this will never be eliminated from systems in which sows are housed as a group. However, it can be properly managed and key factors in this are a gradual familiarisation of unfamiliar animals, sufficient space and pen structure during initial mixing, minimizing opportunities for dominant sows to steal food from subordinates, the provision of a good quality floor and the use of straw bedding. The review concludes with a series of practical recommendations to improve welfare and reproduction in group housed sows.

For more information the full article can be found at http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/livsci

Developmental factors that influence sow longevity

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The length of adult sow life is now recognized as both an economic and a welfare concern. However, there are no consistent definitions to measure sow longevity. This study assessed 6 different descriptions of longevity and determined their relationship with developmental performance factors. Longevity definitions included stayability (probability of a sow producing 40 pigs or probability of her reaching 4 parities), lifespan (number of parities a female has accumulated before culling), lifetime prolificacy (number of pigs born alive during the productive lifetime of a female), herd life (time from first farrowing to culling), and pigs produced per day of life. Data consisted of 14,262 records of Yorkshire females from both nucleus and multiplication herds across 21 farms from 4 seedstock systems. Within a subset of the data, information was available on the litter birth record of the female and her growth and composition data. Therefore, data were subdivided into 2 data sets, consisting of data A (data from the farrowing records of a female) and data B (data A and information from the litter birth record of a female and the growth and backfat data from a female). A Cox proportional hazards model was used to determine the relationship of developmental factors and first farrowing record with longevity. Those factors that were significantly associated with longevity, regardless of definition, were age at first farrowing, litter size at first farrowing and last farrowing, number of stillborn in the first litter, adjusted 21-d litter weight of the first litter, herd type, backfat, and growth. Within a contemporary group, fatter, slower growing gilts had a decreased risk of being culled. Additionally, sows that had more pigs born alive, fewer stillborn pigs, and heavier litters at 21 d of lactation in their first litter had a decreased risk of being culled. Furthermore, sows from nucleus herds experienced a greater risk of being culled. Many factors affected longevity, regardless of definition. Pork producers can implement management protocols that can extend the productive life of breeding females, resulting in improved profitability and animal welfare. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Growth performance and gastrointestinal microbial ecology responses of piglets receiving Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation products after an oral challenge with Escherichia coli (K88)

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The effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation products (YFP) on growth performance and gastrointestinal (GIT) microbial ecology in 90 weanling pigs orally challenged with Escherichia coli K88+ (ETEC) were investigated. The YFP were an original YFP product (XPC) and a water-suspendable yeast fermentation prototype (WSYFP) from a commercial company. Treatments consisted of a negative control (NC, no in-feed or in-water additive), carbadox (AB, 55 mg of carbadox/kg of feed), XPC (in feed, 0.2%), and WSYFP (in water, 0.5, 1, or 2 g/pig per day), and each was allotted to 5 pens (3 pigs/pen). The diets met the 1998 NRC specifications. Pigs were acclimated to treatments for a 7-d period before an ETEC challenge. On d 8, blood was collected from pigs to determine the baseline packed cell volume (PCV) measurement, and pigs were orally challenged with ETEC. At various time points postchallenge, blood samples were taken, performance measures and fecal consistency scores were recorded, and gut digesta and tissue samples were taken to evaluate GIT morphology, microbial ecology, and metabolites. Preplanned contrasts were used for comparison. Pigs receiving YFP had greater ADFI than NC pigs on d 3 (424 vs. 378 g/d) and d 7 (506 vs. 458 g/d) postchallenge. This effect of YFP on ADFI was similar to that of AB on d 3, but pigs receiving AB ate more (576 vs. 506 g/d) at d 7 than pigs receiving YFP. Pigs exhibited reduced PCV upon ETEC challenge; however, pigs receiving additives sustained a greater PCV at 72 h compared with the NC group. Compared with the NC pigs, pigs receiving YFP showed a smaller number of ileal mucosa adherent ETEC and prevalence of the order Enterobacteriales in the ileal digesta, which corresponded to less (5.09 vs. 6.97 mg/ dL) colonic ammonia on d 7 post-challenge. Most of the indices for ileal digesta bacterial richness and diversity were greater for YFP pigs compared with NC pigs. However, results also indicated that the influence of YFP on the piglet intestinal microenvironment might differ when given in feed or water during ETEC challenge. In conclusion, pigs receiving YFP showed a better appetite in the presence of ETEC, which, together with the greater ileal digesta bacteria richness and diversity and decreased ETEC adhering to the mucosa and reduced colonic ammonia, indicates a healthier GIT environment. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Survey among Belgian pig producers about the introduction of group housing systems for gestating sows

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There is a global move from individual to group housing of gestating sows. In the European Union, individual gestating stalls will be banned by 2013. Just like in other industrialized regions, these stalls have been the standard housing system for intensively kept sows from the 1960s onward in the Flemish region of Belgium. Because the socioeconomic consequences for the pig industry may be far-reaching and because farmer attitude may influence the realization of the hoped-for improvement in animal welfare in practice, we conducted a survey from 2003 until 2009 among representative samples of Flemish pig producers every 2 yr. The share of farms with group housing increased from 10.5% in 2003 to 29.8% in 2007, but then dropped to 24.6% in 2009. It appears that after 2005 users of old group housing systems in particular stopped farming. Because sow herd size increased more on farms with vs. without group housing and because the proportion of the herd that was group-housed also tended to increase between 2003 to 2009, the change to group housing took place faster when expressed at the level of the sow (from 9.1% in 2003 to 34.1% in 2009) instead of farm. The percentage of farmers planning to convert to group housing within 2 yr was 4.1% in 2003, and 6 to 7% thereafter. These were typically young farmers with a large sow herd and with a likely successor. Free access stalls were the most common group housing system (31% of farms, 37% of sows). Their popularity is expected to increase further at the expense of electronic feeding stations, ad libitum feeding, and stalls/troughs with manual feed delivery. User satisfaction was generally high but depended on whether or not all gestating sows were kept in group, the provisioning of environmental enrichment, the age, and type of system. The main criteria for choosing a certain group housing system were the investment costs and sow health and welfare. The importance of economic reasons and type of labor decreased with the age of the system. In 2003 and 2005 the main reason for not having converted to group housing was that farmers would stop keeping sows by 2013. In 2007 and 2009 the reasons mainly concerned uncertainty about the future and maximally delaying the conversion. Belgium is one of the European Union countries where the pig industry is expected to undergo drastic changes during the few years remaining before the ban on individual housing 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Dietary supplementation with different forms of flax in late gestation and lactation: Effects on sow and litter performances, endocrinology, and immune response

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The impact of feeding flax as seed, meal, or oil to late-pregnant and lactating sows on hormone concentrations, immune responses, and sow and litter performances was studied. Sixty sows were fed 1 of 4 diets from 68 d of gestation until 21 d of lactation. Diets were standard (CTL; n = 15); 10% flaxseed supplementation (FS; n = 16); 6.5% flaxseed meal supplementation (FSM; n = 14); and 3.5% flaxseed oil supplementation (FSO, n = 15). On d 88 and 101 of gestation, sows were immunized against ovalbumin (OVA). Jugular blood samples were obtained on d 62, 88, and 110 of gestation and on d 2 and 21 of lactation to measure concentrations of estradiol, prolactin, and progesterone as well as antibody (Ab) against OVA (anti-OVA), lymphocyte proliferation, and lymphocyte production of interferon-γ (IFN-γ). Milk samples were obtained on d 3 and 20 of lactation. One piglet per litter was slaughtered on d 1 for compositional analyses, and a jugular blood sample was obtained for anti-OVA analyses. Remaining piglets were weighed on d 2, 7, 14, 21 (weaning), 28, and 56. Circulating hormone concentrations in sows were not affected by treatment overall. On d 20 of lactation, milk from FS, FSM, and FSO sows had more protein than that from CTL sows. The FSM piglets weighed more on d 56 than FS and FSO piglets. Carcasses of 1-d-old FSM piglets also had greater glycogen and DM contents than FS and FSO piglets, but organ weights and circulating concentrations of glucose and IGF-I did not differ. In CTL sows, IFN-γ production decreased between d 101 of gestation and d 2 of lactation, whereas, in FS sows, IFN-γ production increased. Anti-OVA for the whole experimental period was greater in FS than in FSO sows. Concentrations of anti-OVA in milk on d 3 of lactation and lymphocyte proliferative responses were not affected by treatments. Serum concentrations of anti-OVA in 2-d-old piglets that gained BW during the first 24 h after birth were greater in FS, FSM, and FSO litters than in CTL litters and percent mortality on d 2 and 21 postpartum was less for FS, FSM, and FSO litters compared with CTL. Therefore, feeding flax to sows may have beneficial effects on immune resistance of piglets and feeding FSM improved postweaning growth of piglets. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Feed transition between gestation and lactation is exhibited earlier in sows fed a high-fiber diet during gestation

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The underconsumption of feed frequently observed in young sows during lactation can result from an adaptation problem of the sow to the new feeding management in terms of diet composition and feeding amount. Our study aimed to investigate how the sow manages her own feed transition when given the choice between the gestation diet and the lactation diet from moving into the farrowing crate (12 d before farrowing) until the second week postpartum. The effect of adding dietary fiber to the gestation diet on this transition was also evaluated. During gestation, 16 primiparous sows (Large White × Landrace) were fed 2.4 kg/d of a control (CON) diet (3.5% of crude fiber), or 2.9 kg/d of a high-fiber (HF) diet (12.8% of crude fiber). The daily allowance of NE was 24 MJ in both treatments. Twelve days before the expected parturition day (d −12), sows were moved into farrowing crates that were equipped with a computerized feeding device allowing the gestation and lactation diets to be supplied via 2 rewarded push buttons placed above the trough, until d 14 postpartum. The feeding transition was evaluated through the daily ratio of ingestion of the lactation diet. Feeding behavior was measured through daily feed and energy intakes, number of daily meals, meal size, and the nycthemeral distribution of feeding activity. Sows were weighed and backfat thickness was measured at the beginning and end of gestation and lactation. Piglets were weighed every week from birth until weaning. The transition to the lactation diet occurred earlier in HF sows; the 50% threshold of lactation diet ingestion was reached on d −8 and 12 in HF and CON sows, respectively. Dietary treatment did not affect the feeding pattern, and all sows presented a diurnal feeding activity. During lactation, there was an interaction between the hour of the day and the dietary treatment for the distribution of pushes on the rewarded buttons, with pushes being more spread out throughout the day in CON sows compared with HF sows. Variations in sow backfat thickness were not affected by dietary treatment, but HF sows lost more BW during lactation. Growth of piglets was not affected by dietary treatment. In conclusion, sows chose the lactation diet spontaneously on the week preceding parturition when they were fed a fibrous diet during gestation. This highlights the possible impact of such a gestation diet to promote early intake of the lactation diet.

Diets containing inulin but not lupins help to prevent swine dysentery in experimentally challenged pigs

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Swine dysentery is a contagious mucohemorrhagic diarrheal disease caused by the intestinal spirochete Brachyspira hyodysenteriae that colonizes and induces inflammation of the cecum and colon. It has been reported that a diet containing chicory root and sweet lupin can prevent swine dysentery. This experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that inulin in the chicory root rather than galactans in lupins was responsible for protective effects. An experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments was undertaken using pigs fed barley- and triticale-based diets, with the main effects being protein source [185 g/kg of canola meal (decreased galactans) or 220 g/kg of lupins (greater galactans)] and inulin supplementation (0 or 80 g/kg). Forty Large White × Landrace pigs weighing 21kg, with 10 pigs per diet, were allowed to adapt to the diets for 2 wk, and then each pig was challenged orally 4 times with a broth culture containing B. hyodysenteriae on consecutive days. Pigs were killed when they showed clinical signs of dysentery or 6 wk postchallenge. Pigs fed diets without inulin had 8.3 times greater risk of developing swine dysentery and were 16 times more likely to have colon contents that were culture-positive for B. hyodysenteriae, compared with the pigs fed a diet with 80 g/kg of inulin. Diets containing lupins did not prevent pigs from developing clinical swine dysentery; however, inclusion of lupins or inulin or both in the diets delayed the onset of disease compared with the diet based mainly on canola meal. Diet did not influence the total concentration of organic acids in the ileum, cecum, or upper and lower colon; however, the molar proportions of the organic acids were influenced. Consequently the pH values in the cecum, and upper and lower colon were not influenced by diet. However the pH values of the ileal digesta were decreased in pigs fed the diet with both lupins and inulin compared with the diet containing only lupins. In conclusion, this study shows that diets supplemented with highly fermentable carbohydrates from inulin protected pigs against developing swine dysentery.

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Drinking behavior in nursery pigs: Determining the accuracy between an automatic water meter versus human observers

Posted in: Production, Welfare by admin on July 25, 2011 | No Comments

Assimilating accurate behavioral events over a long period can be labor-intensive and relatively expensive. If an automatic device could accurately record the duration and frequency for a given behavioral event, it would be a valuable alternative to the traditional use of human observers for behavioral studies. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the accuracy in the time spent at the waterer and the number of visits to the waterer by individually housed nursery pigs between human observers scoring video files using Observer software (OBS) and an automatic water meter Hobo (WM, control) affixed onto the waterline. Eleven PIC USA genotype gilts (22d of age; 6.5kg of BW) were housed individually in pens with ad libitum access to a corn-based starter ration and one nipple waterer. Behavior was collected on d 0 (day of weaning), 7, and 14 of the trial using 1 color camera positioned over 4 attached pens and a RECO-204 DVR at 1 frame per second. For the OBS method, 2 experienced observers recorded drinking behavior from the video files, which was defined as when the gilt placed her mouth over the nipple waterer. Data were analyzed using nonparametric methods and the general linear model and regression procedures in SAS. The experimental unit was the individual pen housing 1 gilt. The GLM model included the method of observation (WM vs. OBS) and time (24 h) as variables, and the gilt nested within method was used as the error term. Gilts consumed more water on d 14 than on d 0. The time of day affected the number of visits and the time spent at the waterer regardless of the method. However, the OBS method underestimated the number of visits to the waterer (3.48 visits/h for OBS vs. 4.94 for WM) and overestimated the time spent at the waterer (22.6 s/h for OBS vs. 13.9 for WM) compared with WM. The relationship between the 2 methods for prediction of time spent at the waterer and number of visits made by the gilts was weak. Collectively, these data indicate that the use of the traditional OBS method for quantifying drinking behavior in pigs can be misleading. Quantifying drinking behavior and perhaps other behavioral events via the OBS method must be more accurately validated. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

The effect of selection for residual feed intake on general behavioral activity and the occurrence of lesions in Yorkshire gilts

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The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of selection for improved residual feed intake on behavior, activity, and lesion scores in gilts in their home pen. A total of 192 gilts were used, 96 from a line that had been selected for decreased residual feed intake over 5 generations (LRFI) and 96 from a randomly bred control line. Gilts were housed in 12 pens (16 gilts/pen; 0.82 m2/gilt) containing 8 gilts from each line in a conventional grow-finish unit. Twelve hours of video footage were collected on the day of placement and then every 4 wk for 3 more observational periods. Video was scored using a 10-min instantaneous scan sampling technique for 4 postures (standing, lying, sitting, and locomotion) and 1 behavior (at drinker). Categories of active (standing, locomotion, and at drinker) and inactive (sitting and lying) were also created. Lesion scores were collected 24 h after behavior collection had begun. The body of a gilt was divided into 4 regions, with each region receiving a score of 0 (0 lesions) to 3 (5+ lesions). All statistical analyses used Proc Mixed of SAS. Data were analyzed separately for the day of placement and the subsequent 3 rounds. General activity was summarized on a percentage basis by each posture and behavior and subjected to an arcsine square root transformation to normalize data and stabilize variance. Analysis was performed on each behavior and posture. Lesion scores for each region of the body were analyzed as repeated measures. There were no differences between genetic lines for all postures and the behavior at drinker on the day of placement. However, over subsequent rounds it was observed that LRFI gilts spent less time standing, more time sitting, and were less active overall. Gilts from the LRFI line had decreased lesion scores on the day after placement. However, over subsequent rounds there were no differences between the genetic lines. In conclusion, on the day of placement there were no postural, behavior, or general activity differences between genetic lines, but LRFI gilts had decreased lesion scores. Behavioral differences were observed between genetic lines over subsequent rounds, with LRFI gilts becoming less active, but there were no differences in lesion scores. 

For more information the full article can be found at http://jas.fass.org/

Dry sows in dynamic groups: An investigation of social behaviour when introducing new sows

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In the investigation 22 groups of sows (with a total number of 73 sows, being partially observed repeatedly) were consecutively observed for 96 h with the aid of video technology after the introduction of 5 new sows into a group of 10 resident sows, thus creating a dynamic group of 15 animals. The aim was to analyse the frequency of agonistic interactions (AI) and the lying behaviour of new and resident sows. Additionally, the lying behaviour three weeks after the introduction of new sows was recorded in half of the 22 groups. The number of AI per group was 45.2 on the first day and decreased significantly to 30.0 AI/group on the fourth day after the introduction. Between 82.4 and 87.9% of all AI included the participation of at least one new sow. Including all days of observation 2.3 AI per dyad occurred between resident and new sows (n = 50 dyads), 0.5 AI/dyad within the subgroup of resident sows (n = 45 dyads) and 1 AI/dyad within the subgroup of new sows (n = 10 dyads). Altogether 12,454 lying events were recorded from which 6134 occurred clearly either next to a member of the own subgroup (resident and resident, new and new) or next to a member of the other subgroup (resident and new or vice versa). On the 1st day new sows showed significantly more lying events than resident sows (21.2/24 h, 14.9/24 h, respectively). By the 21st day this number decreased significantly (13.9/24 h) no longer showing significant differences to the number observed for resident sows (14.2/24 h). On the 1st day resident as well as new sows lay down significantly more often next to a member of the own subgroup (new sows 94.3%; resident sows 96.8%). The number of lying events next to a member of the own subgroup decreased significantly within 3 weeks after the introduction of new sows, indicating the advancing integration of new sows into the dynamic group (new: 1st day 94.3%, 21st day 46.0%; resident: 1st day 96.8%, 21st day 74.6%).

For more information the full article can be found at http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/applan/issues