Lying characteristics as determinants for space requirements in pigs.

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Questions concerning the minimum space requirement for intensively kept pigs in relation to their welfare have been an issue of interest for many decades. Recently, the discussion about these questions has intensified, as there is a growing concern among western societies about the welfare of intensively kept pigs. Most studies on space allowances or requirements have been assessed in experiments where the performance of the pig is predominant measure. This suggests that there is no need to house pigs at an area larger than the area below which production decreases. However, from a welfare perspective this is questionable. This study focused on the lying postures, space occupation and percentage of space-sharing in pigs, in order to develop a theoretical framework on spatial requirements for pigs, e.g. for pen design legislative purposes. Pigs were housed at thermoneutral conditions, on 60% solid and 40% slatted floors, in groups of eight from 25 to 100 kg live weight. Behaviours of the pigs were recorded at approximately 30, 50, 80 and 100 kg live weight, in order to gain an insight into their space use and space requirements. The results showed that pigs of all weight categories lie down for a greater part of the day. Based on the behavioural observations carried out, present study confirmed that the floor area occupied by lying pigs at thermoneutral conditions should on average be based on the estimated floor area for half recumbent pigs (the animal is lying half on the side and half on the belly), i.e. area = 0.033 x body weight0.66 which in turn exceeds the recommended minimum space requirements for commercial practices in EU. The present study however, does of course not answer the questions whether pigs actually need an amount space that goes beyond recommendations generally based on production performance studies. Additional validation experiments, studying the welfare relevancy of those behavioural expressions should be carried out in order to answer this question.

Grouping and social preferences in calves, heifers and cows.

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In order to improve animal welfare, a growing number of calves, heifers and dairy cows are reared in loose housing systems. However, regrouping unfamiliar animals may result in aggressive interactions and distress. Increased knowledge about grouping and social integration would make it possible to develop effective management techniques that reduce the amount of problems occurring during social integration of cattle. The aim of this paper is to review recent literature on social integration of calves, heifers and cows and how this is influenced by early social environment, group size, introduction method and competition level. Grouping unfamiliar animals is found to increased aggression, social stress, locomotion behaviour and to have negative effects on feed intake and milk yield. Problems related to social integration are normally higher for the introduced animals than the resident animals. Previous social experience, number of animals that are mixed and the group composition are important factors that can influence social integration. Calves reared in groups are more social confident and show less fear than calves reared in single boxes or in isolation. Repeated grouping seem to accustom the animals to these procedures.

Behavioural and adrenocortical responses of dairy cows toward novel food: effects of food deprivation, milking frequency and energy density in the daily ration.

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One aspect of farm animal adaptability is behavioural and physiological responses toward challenging situations, often implying elements of novelty. Dairy cows show strong behavioural responses when presented with novel food and the behavioural responses reflect the degree of novelty in the food and have an acceptable repeatability. In the present study two experiments were conducted to examine whether the behavioural responses toward novel food were affected by short-term food deprivation or whether the metabolic load in terms of increased milking frequency and decreased energy density in the food affected behavioural and adrenocortical responses of dairy cows toward novel food. The effects of metabolic load and 12 h of food deprivation on the behavioural and physiological responses toward novel food were examined in dairy cows provided with 4 kg of carrots as novel food. In Experiment 1, effects of 12 h of food deprivation were tested using dairy cows provided with 4 kg of carrots as novel food after 0 h versus 12 h of food deprivation. Food deprivation did not affect the approach-avoidance behaviour toward novel food but led to increased attempts to steal usual food from neighbours as well as decreased self grooming. In experiment 2, effects of milking frequency and energy density in the food on behavioural and physiological responses toward novel food were examined. The cows were milked either twice or three times daily. The energy in the food after calving was low or high. An extra daily milking affected the approach-avoidance behaviour of the cows as shown by reduced time spend away from the novel food and reduced frequency of sniffing the novel food. Low energy density in the food led to increased time spent away, increased latency to eat novel food, decreased food intake and a higher proportion of cows performing self-grooming. Provision of novel food did not affect the plasma concentration of cortisol sampled after food provision, and no differences were found between treatments. In conclusion, 12 h of food deprivation did not affect behavioural responses toward novel food in dairy cows, suggesting that this test of behavioural responses toward novelty is rather insensitive toward day-to-day changes in eating motivation. Low energy density in the daily ration and increased milking frequency affected the behavioural, but not the adrenocortical responses toward novelty but there was no evidence for a simple relationship between the energy balance of dairy cows and their responses toward novel food.

Dairy cattle's choice of handling treatments in a Y-maze.

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Farm animals are often subjected to aversive handling, which can result in them becoming fearful of the person handling them and, in some circumstances, of people in general. This fear can increase handling problems and injuries to both animals and handlers, and reduce animal welfare and productivity. In contrast, gentle handling can reduce animals’ fear of people. However, it is not known exactly what types of handling are the most aversive or the most rewarding for animals. The purpose of this study was to assess dairy cattle’s preferences for handling practices by allowing animals to choose treatments in a Y-maze. Animals were first trained to expect one treatment on one side of the maze and another treatment on the other side of the maze. Animals were then allowed to choose between the two sides. In all experiments treatments were balanced for arm of the maze, color of clothing and handler. In the first experiment we validated the use of the Y-maze, using 34 heifers who chose between a) pail feeding versus control, b) hit/shout versus control and c) hit/shout versus pail feeding. Heifers chose pail feeding more often than control in treatment a), and control more than hit/shout in treatment b), and pail feeding more than hit/shout in treatment c). This demonstrates that animals can choose between treatments. In a second experiment, 24 cows were given choices between various handling treatments thought to be aversive a) shout versus hit, b) shout versus cattle prod, and c) control versus tail twist. No significant difference was found in any of the three comparisons. In a third experiment, 16 cows were used to determine if cows had a preference for hand feeding versus control and gentling versus control. Meanwhile twenty-four heifers were used to determine if a preference existed for gentling, pail feeding, or hand feeding over control. Cows showed no preference between control and gentling treatments but chose feeding by hand more often than control. In contrast, heifers showed no preference between control and hand feeding but chose pail feeding more often than control treatment. Heifers also showed no preference between control and gentling. In a fourth experiment, 24 cows were used to compare talking in a gentle voice versus control, gentle voice versus shouting, and shouting versus control. Cows showed no preference between talking in a gentle voice and control but chose control and talking in a gentle voice more often than shouting. Cattle can choose between handling treatments and the Y-maze is an effective method for determining cattle’s preferences. Shouting and the use of cattle prods are aversive; tail twisting is not aversive, if done gently. Feeding is rewarding although, for heifers, feeding by hand may not be. There was no evidence found that gentle or being spoken to in a gentle voice is rewarding for cattle.

Familiarity and group size affect emotional stress in Japanese Black heifers.

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The cattle in this study were exposed to three types of stressors while in the presence of other heifers. The other animals were either familiar with the observed cattle, or unfamiliar. The observed animal was in the presence of either 1 or 4 other cattle during the tests. The study was designed to determine if the presence of familiar vs unfamiliar animals, and the effect of number of other cattle, on the response to stress. The animals were stressed by having a strange object placed in front of them, by being surpised by a sudden loud sound, and by being provided a bucket of feed in such a way that they could not reach the food. All of the tests resulted in some indicators of stress. In general, the presence of familiar animals reduced the stress response of the animals, compared to having unfamiliar animals present. Also, the effect of familiar animals was greater in groups of five (4 plus subject) than when only one other animal was present. In conclusion, stressful events are less stressful if an animal is in a social group of familiar cattle, and a larger group reduces the stress even further.

Repeatability of litter traits of Nigerian indigenous sows

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Comparison of injuries in sows housed in gestation stalls versus group pens with electronic sow feeders.

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Most of the challenges to housing pregnant sows are to balance between providing enough space for free movement and control aggression. Both inadequate space and aggression can cause injuries in sows. There are mainly 2 types of gestation housing systems: individual stalls and group housed pens. Individual stalls may not provide adequate space, but preventing sows from aggression. Group housing, on the other side, provides open space for free movement, but not preventing sows from aggression. The current study was to compare the location and severity of injuries in pregnant sows housed in individual gestation stalls with that in pregnant sows housed in groups in pens with electronic feeders. A total of 100 pregnant sows in parity 1 to 3 were used. Fifty sows each were randomly allotted to gestation stalls or group pens with electronic feeders. Injures were scored on the basis of location, number, and depth of wounds. Injury scores for sows in both housing systems were compared during a period of 90 days. The influence of factors such as duration of stay in the housing system, parity, and body weight on sow injuries was also examined. The results indicated that injury scores were higher in group pens. As body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in group pens and increased for sows housed in gestation stalls. To evaluate welfare of pregnant sows in individual stalls vs. in group pens, multiple measurements are needed.

Identification of quantitative trait loci for receiving pecks in young and adult laying hens.

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Feather pecking (FP) is a major problem in cage and free-range housing systems. In free-range systems FP is more difficult to control. Legislation concerning animal welfare is becoming more strict in the European Union and this has resulted in more free-range housing systems. It is not known why victim is being pecked. It could be that a bird is genetically predisposed to be pecked. To study the genetics of FP behaviour, a large F2 population of 630 hens was generated from a cross between two commercial laying lines differing in their propensity to feather peck. Traits such as receiving gentle FP, receiving severe FP, and receiving aggressive pecking were measured at 6 and 30 wk of age. Furthermore, receiving toe pecking (TP) was measured at 30 wk of age. A significant Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) on GGA1 and three different suggestive QTL were identified on GGA2, GGA6, and GGA7 for receiving gentle FP at 6 wk. For receiving gentle FP at 30 wk of age, a suggestive QTL on GGA5 was detected. For receiving aggressive pecking, a suggestive QTL was detected on GGA3. For receiving TP, three suggestive QTL were detected on GGA1, GGA5, and GGA23, respectively. The different QTL detected for receiving gentle FP at different ages indicate that this trait is regulated by different genes in young and adult hens.

The effect of abrupt weaning of suckler calves on the plasma concentrations of cortisol, catecholamines, leukocytes, acute-phase proteins and in vitro interferon-gamma production.

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Social group disruption and maternal separation result when calves are abruptly weaned. This study evaluated the effects of these stressors on the physiology of the calves. Calves were either abruptly weaned or not. Plasma cortisol concentration and neutrophil:lymphocyte concentrations increased and leukocyte concentration and immune response decreased for calves that had experienced social disruption. The behavioural response to handling did not change as a result of weaning or sex. There was an interaction between weaning and sex and time and sex on plasma noradrenaline concentration. Male calves showed an increase at weaning and each sampling time after, but heifers did not show an increase due to weaning. Leukocyte concentration was not affected by weaning or sex. Following weaning, the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio increased, and this was affected by sex. Immune response was weakened due to weaning. The alterations in physiological responses indicate that abruptly weaning suckler calves makes them sensitive to stress associated with social disruption and weaning. Some of the physiological effects of the stress were still apparent a week after weaning. Therefore, efforts should be made to reduce social stress, and allow the calves time to adjust before imposing other management stressors.

Quantitative analysis of acid-base balance in Bos indicus steers subjected to transportation of long duration.

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Transport stress has led to live weight loss and greater carcass loss, whereas it is also accepted that animals dehydrate with increasing transit time. Management strategies for dealing with problems caused by transport stress have included rest periods during and after transport, the use of supplemental potassium and the use of electrolyte solutions. However there is lack of information pertaining to the effects of transport stress on the acid-base physiology of ruminants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of transportation and/or feed and water deprivation on acid-base balance of Bos indicus steers. Steers were evaluated in three experimental groups. The control group received ad libitum access to feed and water. The second group was deprived of feed and water for 60 hours. The third group was transported for 48 hr following withdrawal of feed and water for 12 hours. Blood gases, electrolytes, lactate, total protein, albumin, anion gap, strong ion difference, and total weak acids were determined at the conclusion of transportation. It is concluded from the results of this study that Bos indicus steers transported for 48 h are able to maintain their acid-base balance within normal values. The primary challenge to these animals seems to be the elevation of total weak acids via an increase in plasma albumin concentration as a result of dehydration. The loss of electrolytes had little effect on the acid-base balance of the animals.