A note on the use of odor manipulation to facilitate the adoption of alien lambs by ewes bearing twins

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Artificial odorants such as neatsfoot oil has been used to facilitate adoption of alien lambs by ewes bearing single natural offspring because the oil provides a common odor for the lambs. Use of cloth stockinette jackets to exchange natural odors between lambs has also aided this adoption. Both methods were tested on lambs within 12 hours of birth. On the day following birth, the jackets were exchanged between own and alien lambs, and the alien lambs were fostered. The incidence of acceptance and rejection behaviors of ewes was monitored using ten-minute acceptance tests. In 5 days, 85 % of the ewes had met the acceptance criteria of no butts or butt attempts directed at the alien lamb, and they allowed a sucking time of 20 seconds or more by the lamb in each of two successive daily acceptance tests. Thirsty-six percent of the ewes adopted the alien lambs immediately. The study indicated that alien lambs could be successfully fostered in Friesian x Targhee cross ewes with natural twin lambs using a combination of neatsfoot oil to establish a common odor between own and alien lambs, and cloth stockinette jackets to exchange natural odors between natural and alien lambs.

A systematic approach towards developing environmental enrichment for pigs.

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This study made use of 222 groups of 3 weaner pigs (~ 5 weeks old, ~ 12 kg) and 222 groups of 3 grower pigs (13-14 weeks old, ~ 50 kg). A comparison of 74 different enrichment objects and substrates were presented in four ways, depending on object/substrate use: 1) substrate in a metal box attached to the pen side, 2) object loose on the floor, 3) object attached to the wall, and 4) object suspended from a metal bracket so that the object appeared at eye or floor level. The aim of this study was to determine which enrichment device characteristics were favored, and which of those favored characteristics were age-dependent. The object interaction for both weaner and grower pigs varied from 0.1-11.9 % on day 1, and from 0.2-9.3 % on day 5. On day 1, growers spent an average of 22.3 % of their active time on object-directed behaviour, while weaners spent an average of 16.4 % of their active time on object-directed behaviour. On day 5, active time spent on object-directed behaviour was 8.6 % for growers, and 7.5 % for weaners. Growers had a tendency to interact with the objects more often than weaners, and had a lower latency to interact with an object than weaners on day 1. The mean length of time spent on object interaction was significantly higher on day 1 than on day 5, and was higher among growers. A pig’s motivation to explore, to forage, and to manipulate objects may explain the reason for objects with characteristics such as ‘ingestible’, ‘odorous’, ‘chewable’, ‘deformable’, and ‘destructible’ to be used so extensively among the pigs. A high interaction (6-9 %) with edible objects validates the statement. Furthermore, objects that were not only ‘chewable’ but ‘odorous’ as well, became even more attractive. Renewing a substrate each day also helped to hold a pig’s interest in the enrichment device. Pigs often lost interest in an object that became soiled, such as objects that were provided loosely on the floor. Presenting substrates and objects in a box reduced this problem. Pigs habituated to some objects as early as 3 days after their initial introduction. Analysis of the data in this study concluded that there were 2 different sets of characteristics required of objects on day 1 (day of object introduction) and day 5, indicating that there was a separation between initially attractive characteristics and characteristics that kept the pigs’ attention over a number of days.

Relation between early fear- and anxiety-related behaviour and maternal ability in sows.

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This study tested the hypothesis that sows that were less fearful of humans and novel objects at 8 weeks of age would have better mothering abilities which would result in higher reproductive success. Eight-nine gilts were tested in a human approach test and in a novel object approach test. Of the 89 sows tested, only 30 were bred and their subsequent farrowing productivity was recorded. To determine the effect fear and anxiety would have on gilt productivity the following parameters were monitored at farrowing: the duration of farrowing, time interval between piglets birth, the number of times the sows lied on top of or crushed a piglet while she was farrowing, the number of liveborn, stillborn piglets and piglets deaths after birth until weaning. Increased fear of humans (‘fear’) was associated with longer farrowing durations, larger differences in the time interval between the birth of piglets. As the length of time for a sow to farrow her litter increased, there was an increase in the number of piglet deaths prior to weaning. Gilts that were more fearful of humans also had more stillborn piglets and more piglets die prior to weaning. Fear of a novel object (‘anxiety’) was also associated with a higher number of stillborn piglets. It was concluded that fear of humans in reproductive animals could potentially lead to a decrease in productivity.

The effects of surface type on lying behaviour and stress responses of dairy cows during periodic weather-induced removal from pasture.

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Since cows are often moved off a pasture during wet weather, four alternative surfaces were examined in terms of cow lying behaviour, body weight, dirtiness, locomotion, and fecal concentrations of stress-induced hormones. Thirty-two non-lactating Friesian cows housed in groups of four on either a specially constructed wood chip pad, a concrete yard, a gravel-surfaced farm laneway or a small paddock. The cows resided there for 4 days, except for the 3 hour period in which they spent grazing at pasture. The farm laneway and the paddock became very muddy during the experiment. Cows on the wood chip pad spent the greatest amount of time lying down. The effects were the result of the frequency of lying bouts rather than the lying duration. Cows in the other treatments compensated by lying in the pasture more during the 3 hour pasture period. The cows housed in the concrete yards had lower body weights and higher fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations at the end of the 4 day period than cows on the wood chip pad and in the small paddock. Cows that had been housed in the concrete yard had reduced stride lengths when they walked at the end of the 4 day period than cows housed in the farm laneway or small paddock. The cows on the wood chip pad were the least dirty. The results of this study showed that it is important to provide cows with a well drained and comfortable surface to lie on during periodic weather-induced removal from pasture.

Mammary expression of new genes to combat mastitis.

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By combining genes from different organisms, via recombinant DNA techniques, transgenic animals have been developed. Whether this costly technology becomes used in mainstream agriculture will depend on capability establishing new traits in animals that cannot be incorporated by any easy method. Some potential benefits to the livestock industry by using transgenic animals are: more efficient nutrient usage as fewer nutrients will be lost in the feces, altered milk composition that provides all desired nutritional components, and improved immunity to disease. This study is attempting to reduce mastitis in dairy cows by manipulating the mammary gland cells to secrete more antibacterial proteins. This has already been achieved in mice, as they secreted higher levels of the protein lysostaphin in their milk. When this protein is secreted with the milk it improves the mouse’s resistance to Staphylococcus aureus, which is a major cause of mastitis in dairy cows. Currently other antibacterial proteins are that can work complementary to lysostaphin are being sought after. The benefits of having the antibacterial proteins in the milk, is that it will reduce the use of antibiotics currently used to treat mastitis. Injecting or ingesting the antibacterial proteins has proven to be ineffective, as the body’s immune system will destroy them because they are a foreign protein or they are broke down during digestion. However, if the animal produces the protein itself it prevents the immune system from breaking down the protein. Research is also underway to try to limit lysostaphin production to only when it is needed, during an infection with mastitis. The incorporation of transgenic animals into the agricultural industry could be very beneficial but before they are incorporated the DNA used and the animal that is produced from the altered DNA must be extensively studied.

Identification of potential physiological and behavioral indicators of postoperative pain in horses after exploratory celiotomy for colic

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Learning performances in young horses using two different learning tests

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Horse’s personality, including the physical abilities of horse should be considered to achieve optimal performance in equine sports as well as in leisure. Besides temperamental aspects, like emotionality, or the horse’s reactivity towards humans in handling situations, the learning ability of the horse is another relevant personality trait. In the present study 39 young horses (Dutch Warmblood) were tested repeatedly in two learning tests to study whether differences in learning performance are consistent over time and whether individual learning performance differs between learning tests or is affected by emotionality. An aversive stimulus was used in one learning test (the avoidance learning test) and a reward was used in the other learning test (the reward learning test). During both learning tests behaviour as well as heart rate were measured. Each test was done twice when horses were 1 year of age, and twice when they were 2 years of age. In addition, half of the horses received additional physical training from 6 months onwards. In both tests horses could be classified as either performers, i.e. completing the daily session, or as non-performers, i.e. returning to the home environment without having completed the daily session. There were some indications that emotionality might have caused non-performing behaviour, but these indications are not convincing enough to exclude other causes. Horses revealed consistent individual learning performances within years in both tests, and in the avoidance learning test also between years. There was no significant correlation between learning performances in the avoidance learning test and the learning performances in the reward learning test. It is concluded that individual learning abilities are consistent over a short time interval for an avoidance learning test and a reward learning test and over a longer time for the avoidance learning test. Furthermore, results indicate that some horses perform better when they have to learn to avoid an aversive stimulus while others perform better when they are rewarded after a correct response. It is suggested that these differences may be relevant to design optimal individual training programmes and methods.

Experiences with ESF in Denmark

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SKIOLD-Echberg, the biggest pig feeder provider in Europe, has designed alternatives to gestation stalls in response to welfare concerns. As of January 1st, 1999, it was law that all sows in Europe from weaning until 7 days prior to farrowing must be loose housed. In 1996 an improved ESF system was developed. To reduce labor inputs, this new system required no straw, slatted floors for dunging and solid for lying, and the possibility of separation of sows for farrowing/vaccination.

In Denmark, the average group size is 200 sows. For good production, the ESF system must provide an insulated building, individual feeding, slatted floor for dunging, and bedding for lying. Distance from lying to dunging area must be short, and the entrance to the feeder must be away from the dunging area and must be designed to minimize aggression. A depressed lying area ensures no plugging of the slats because the bedding will be more difficult to push around. A separation area (for vaccinations and such) as well as a training pen (to teach sows the routine) is beneficial. Because the food consumer is the ultimate customer, the swine industry needs to comply with their desires, and an ESF system should do just that.

Individual differences in behaviour, physiology and pathology in breeding gilts housed in groups or stalls.

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Pigs show a large degree of variation in their behavioural and physiological responses to environmental challenges. The variation in behavioural response can be assessed by the degree of resistance displayed early in life in a so-called ‘backtest’. A number of studies in young pigs have demonstrated a relation between a variety of behavioural and physiological features and the degree of resistance. This study aimed at investigating the relation between the backtest response and the development of stereotypies, the circadian rhythm of cortisol, the heart rate response to feeding, and pathological lesions of heart, lungs and stomach in adult breeding gilts housed in groups or stalls. At 10 and 17 days of age, female piglets classified as high-resisting (HR) or low-resisting (LR) based on backtest. They were housed in groups of six (3 HR, 3LR). At 7 months of age, half of the groups were housed in individual stalls. Time spent chain biting by stalled gilts during 2 h afternoon feeding was studied at regular intervals for 21 weeks. At 11 months of age, saliva was collected from all animals every hour during 24 h for coritsol analysis. At 8 and at 12 months of age, heat rate of all animals was measured around afternoon feeding. Pigs were slaughtered at 14 months of age and heart, lungs and stomach were macroscopically examined. In stalls, HR gilts tended to show more chain biting, had lower circadian cortisol concentrations and showed a diminished heart rate response to feed delivery compared to LR gilts. In group-housed gilts, the circadian rhythm of cortisol and the heart rate response to feed delivery did not related to the backtest response. Stall-housed gilts had lower cortisol concentrations than group-housed gilts. The prevalence of pathological lesions was not influenced by backtest response. Stomach wall damage was more severe in stall-housed gilts. The results suggested that stall-housed gilts were chronically stressed as indicated by low level of cortisol and more lesions on stomach wall. High resisting gilts were prone to develop stereotypies in stall-housing.

Voluntary Animal welfare assessment of mass-produced farm animal housing equipment using a standardized procedure

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Assessment of mass-produced animal-housing equipment can serve as a basis for improving animal welfare. A number of European countries have adopted various legal approaches to such assessment. In Germany, welfare assessment of housing equipment is voluntary, but minimum standards can be set by regulation for the assessment procedure and for the qualifications of the persons involved. From a scientific perspective, the time and resource constraints pose some problems, particularly as they apply to a voluntary procedure. For reasons of practicability, certain compromises will be required. Nevertheless, it is important to ensure that each assessment procedure is based upon scientific principles and considers animal welfare aspects to a sufficient extent. A proposal for the minimum standards of an assessment procedure has been elaborated by Animal Welfare Committee of the German Agricultural Society (Deutsche Landwirtschafts, DLG), a shortened version of which is presented in this paper. The animal welfare impact of such a regulated but voluntary procedure will be less than that of an obligatory assessment; however, the relatively flexible approach may still significantly contribute to the improvement of welfare aspects of livestock housing.