Human-cattle interactions in group housing.

Posted in: Welfare by admin on January 1, 2003 | No Comments

Traditionally dairy cows have been housed in tie stalls in Europe, which provided an abundance of beneficial close contact with humans. A more common method of housing dairy cows is to loose house them in groups. This provides them with enough space to avoid humans; thus the cows become less habituated to humans, which cause the cows to become fearful of humans and difficult to handle. The problem with fear is it is a negative feeling and can cause stress, and it is extremely undesirable to have associated with the presence of humans. The fear of humans can be remedied by providing the cows with regular exposure to positive contact with humans, and is most effective in young calves. Another change in the dairy industry in Europe is the rising number of cows raised on each farm. The increase in workload forces the farmer to hire stockpeople, which are difficult to find and quite costly to employ when compared to the price paid for milk or meat. Technological developments have helped remedy the problem of needing to find qualified employees, but technology further reduces the amount of contact the cows have with humans. For example, there are now reliable automatic machines that are able to detect health problems, a practice once carried out by the stock person. Thus, individual care and attention continues to decline as its value continually increases. What is known, is that cows will tend to avoid contact with humans unless there is food involved. It is also known that to improve the welfare of cattle, they need to have some form of positive human interaction. What needs to be determined is that if a method of group handling can be incorporated and successful, or will producers need to find a way to provide individual contact with all the cows in their herd. Research also needs to be conducted to determine the effects of group housing and the effect that group size can have on human-cattle interactions.

Influences on the avoidance and approach behaviour of dairy cows towards humans on 35 farms.

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Within the dairy industry, a practical on farm method of assessing the relationship between humans and animals to determine the herd’s welfare still needs to be developed. This study attempted to validate differ tests of dairy cows reaction to humans, as well as, the tests accuracy at defining the relationships. The first two tested were conducted within the cows’ pen and at the feed rack. How close a person could approach a standing cow, while hold their arm extended. The third test recorded number of cows that would approach a novel object. This study was carried out on 35 dairy farms that all use a loose housing system. In terms of on farm variables, the stockpersons attitude towards the cows, herd management, social interactions amongst the herd, and housing were all recorded. The number of friendly interactions with the handler and the intensity/quality of contact between the stockman and the cows were associated with the distance a person could approach a cow within their pen. Humans approaching a cow at the feed bunk or the number of cows willing to approach a novel object were not strongly related to the relationship between the stockpeople and the herd. Herd size, breed and age had little or no impact on the relationship between stockpeople and the herd. Cows that more readily approached a human were observed to preform more social licking. The authors concluded that a cow’s willingness to approach an unfamiliar human in the stable was the most accurate reflection of the relationship between the herd and the stockpeople, and would be useful in an on-farm assessment

Transmission of PRRSV by non-porcine vectors: Recent research reports

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PRRS is generally passed into a herd via other pigs and semen. Researchers are working to analyze other routes of infection. It was found that needles transmit PRRS from PRRS positive pigs to PRRS negative pigs. Contaminated coveralls, boots and hands of people can transmit PRRS to non-infected pigs following the direct contact with infected pigs. Therefore it is good practice to change clothing and clean up after contact with PRRS positive pigs. Results have shown that with “real” conditions (meaning not an experimental set of conditions), PRRS may be transmitted over short distances with infected animal air space, but transmission of PRRS through the air between farms seems to be an infrequent event.

Houseflies and mosquitoes believe it or not serve as a mechanical method of PRRS transmission. The PRRS virus can survive in the fly for 12 hours and the mosquito for 6 hours following feeding on an infected pig, and as little as 1 fly is capable of transmission.

Behaviour and adrenal activity of first parturition and multiparous cows under a competitive situation.

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First parturition cows have to cope with several changes in their social and physical environment that can compromise their welfare and health. In addition to being separated from their calves, they have to compete for eating and lying places with unknown and more experienced cows once they are introduced into the milking herd. The present study was aimed at to compare the social and maintenance behaviour, and plasma cortisol levels after an adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) hormone challenge test as a mean of assessing the level of stress, of first parturition cows with those of adult cows. Cows were observed during 178 h in a cubicle building where social and maintenance behaviour was recorded. An adrenal function test was carried out after the observation period to determine cortisol levels in plasma before and after ACTH injection. First parturition cows spent more time walking and lying out of the cubicle during a 24-h period and during the night than adult cows. Cortisol levels at 60 and 90 min after injection of ACTH were lower in adult cows than in first parturition individuals. In heifers, the proportion of time feeding during the day was negatively correlated with cortisol levels at 60 and 90 min after ACTH administration, and in multiparous cows the proportion of time lying out of the cubicles in a 24-h cycle and lying out during the night were positively correlated to cortisol levels at 60 minute after ACTH administration. This information is useful to understand more about chronic stress in first lactation cows when introduced to a new herd and to make recommendations of management procedures to reduce welfare problems in these individuals.

Social effects on dustbathing behaviour in laying hens: using video images to investigate effect of rank.

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Dustbathing behaviour of hens was studied due to the assumption that the behaviour is socially facilitated, and social rank of hens was also investigated due to its importance in other aspects of hen social behaviour. After nine days of litter deprivation, both high and low ranked birds were tested by situating them in front of a video monitor displaying middle ranked birds, in a cage with sand on the floor. The test hens were allowed a one-hour habituation period in the test cage before the two-hour test phase began. Three different test videos of the middle ranking birds were used: a dustbathing hen, a standing hen, and an empty cage. Each test bird was allowed to see all three videos. Differences were found in the number of birds dustbathing, the number of dustbathing bouts, and the latency to dustbathe. Fewer dustbathing bouts and fewer initiations of dustbathing were observed among high-ranking birds compared with low-ranking birds when the video showed a standing bird. High-ranking birds began to dustbathe sooner if they were shown a video of another bird dustbathing compared with a video of a bird standing. In both high-ranking and low-ranking birds, effects on duration and intensity of dustbathing were not seen. The authors suggested two interpretations of the results: either the high-ranking birds were socially facilitated to initiate dustbathing by the video image of a dustbathing hen, or the high-ranking birds were inhibited in starting to dustbathe by the image of a standing bird. The authors then raised the question as to whether social facilitation is as clear a phenomenon as suggested by earlier workers, who only worked with feeding and drinking behaviours in hens.

Heritability of feather pecking and open-field response of laying hens at two different ages

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Feather pecking impairs animal welfare and results in higher feeding costs and increased mortality rates in laying hens. The objective of the current study was to estimate heritabilities (h2) of feather pecking and open-field response of laying hens at two different ages. An F2 cross, originating from a high and a low feather pecking line of laying hens, was used for the experiment. Each of the 630 birds of the F2 cross was subjected to an open-field test (individual, 10 min) at 5 and 29 wk of age and to a social feather pecking test (groups of five birds on wood shaving, 30 min) at 6 and 30 wk of age. Both tests were performed in a square open field and the behaviours of the birds were recorded directly from a monitor. Heritabilities of feather pecking and open-field behaviours were calculated. In the open-field test at 5 wk of age, high h2 were found for most traits, ranging from 0.20 for the frequency of flying to 0.49 for number of steps. In the social test at 6 wk, gentle feather pecking (0.12) and ground pecking (0.13) were found to be heritable. When both tests were repeated at 29 and 30 wk of age, h2 estimates were lower for the open-field test, ranging from 0.10 for duration of sitting to 0.20 for latency to first step. In the social test, however, higher h2 estimates of 0.15 for gentle feather pecking and 0.30 for ground pecking were found compared with 6 wk of age. In conclusion, gentle feather pecking and open-field behaviours may be used in selection against feather pecking.

Physiology and behaviour of the hen during induced molt.

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The easiest and most effective way to induce molt is through feed deprivation, and is therefore used by the commercial egg industry. However, there are concerns about the bird’s welfare under these conditions. The response to feed deprivation goes through three phases: 1) for the first few days, physiological and behavioural adjustments cause a reduction in protein catabolism and energy expenditure. Plasma corticosterone increases temporarily, which promotes gluconeogenesis and helps maintain glucose levels at the beginning of the fasting period. Hens become more alert, active and aggressive during the first two days of the molt; 2) During the second phase, energy is gained through the breakdown of lipids and proteins and the hens tend to rest more. This phase can continue for many months; 3) During the third phase, there is an acceleration of protein catabolism. Birds will stop eating and remain inactive during this period. Alternatives to current methods of induced molting are being investigated; for example, different methods of nutrient restriction that avoid long-term feed withdrawal, and the use of dietary additives.

Weaner Problems in Danish Pig Production

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Due to Denmark’s removal of large amounts of zinc and growth promotants from diets, diarrhea has become a big problem from E. coli. This can cause death in 5 to 8 days after weaning, often with diarrhea not even being seen. Age, weight at weaning, hygiene, climate conditions, feeding strategy, feed formulation, feeding conditions, water supply and density among the pigs are all important factors to take into consideration when dealing with E. coli diarrhea.

Lawsonia diarrhea causes grayish diarrhea, a reduction in weight gain, and usually begins at 3 weeks post-weaning. Proper feed formulation and very good hygiene practice are both helpful in preventing this disease.

Denmark has also seen PRRS and PMWS/Circovirus.

Transferring results of behavioral research to industry to improve animal welfare on the farm, ranch and the slaughter plant.

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Aversive handling procedures regularly affect animal production in a negative way, whether it is through decreased gains, decreased milk production, increased presence of illness, etc. Good handling equipment aids in good production, but stockman attitude towards animals is equally essential. In the past, animal handling, transport, and stunning methods have been successfully transferred to the industry. However, there must be careful attention to detail when constructing new equipment in order to improve animal welfare. Construction of new equipment should be based on the scientific specifications rather than cost benefits to the contractor or producer, and construction should be supervised by the scientist when possible to ensure it is being carried out properly. Scientists who come up with ideas for new technologies must be able to communicate their ideas in a clear and concise manner to the industry and public, using layman’s terms and avoiding scientific jargon. Communication is best carried out through speaking at conferences and public events, through websites, and through publishing of research in magazines and scientific journals. Consultation with producers on how to implement new procedures and technology should be readily available. In order to maintain excellent stockmanship and animal handling, it is essential to have the appropriate number of staff for the workload at hand. Financial penalties could then be implemented relating to the number of injuries animals have, or the drop in production an operation may have compared to the industry average. Speed should not be rewarded when it comes to the handling and processing of animals. Provision of economic benefits relating to improvements in animal productivity and reduction in injuries would provide more incentive for the industry to adopt welfare friendly methods of production. Implementing standards such as scoring systems to compare animal handling techniques to set welfare standards would benefit producers as well. For example, paying attention to the number of animal vocalizations at slaughter would give the processor an idea of where to improve their methods, since vocalizations are often related to aversive events such as bad handling, equipment problems, bad flooring, etc. Welfare legislations and requirements that are specified by large customers (such as restaurants and supermarkets) provide powerful motivation and economic incentive to the industry to use behavioral methods of production. Such customers keep up frequent audits in which they regularly score their supplier’s operations and set standards. If a supplier fails an audit, they are suspended from the supplier list, or removed from the list altogether. Overall, scientists need to take more initiative to get their research results adopted by the industry.

A note on the effect of gestation housing environment on approach test measures in gilts.

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Welfare of gilts housed either in indoor or outdoor was tested by human approach test that was used to identify problems in human-animal interactions. Sixteen gilts were housed outdoor and eight gilts indoor for 30-44 days before the test started. The indoor system was more space limited and thermally controlled and had human contact about 15 min daily during cleaning out. The outdoor system was more extensive, had much greater space accessible, not thermally controlled, and had human contact during feeding and cleaning period daily that lasted about 1 hr. At testing, each gilt was moved into a test arena. After 2 min familiarization period, an unfamiliar human entered the test pen and stood motionless for 3 min against the wall and then approached the gilt and touched her snout. Throughout the experimental period, heart rate, behaviour and sound within the test arena were recorded. Outdoor gilts had lower heart rates and performed fewer vocalizations and less locomotor behaviour over the 3 min test period. Outdoor gilts tended t be slower to approach the human, but then took less time to make physical contact (3.3 vs. 52.7 s). The results indicated that the human approach test could not approve that outdoor gilts were more fearless than indoor gilts. The authors suggested that when using human approach test to assess animal welfare on farm, systems differences should be taking into account.