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Prairie Swine Centre is an affiliate of the University of Saskatchewan
Prairie Swine Centre is grateful for the assistance of the George Morris Centre in developing the economics portion of Pork Insight.
Financial support for the Enterprise Model Project and Pork Insight has been provided by:
Nutritional Manipulation of Pork Quality: Current Opportunities
Posted in: Meat Quality by admin on January 1, 2004 | No Comments
Current market demands are for “normal” pork to meet domestic and export consumption and to meet specialized markets. Quality pork is the combined result of genetics, nutrition, production management, transportation, slaughter, processing and retailing. There are a number of promising nutrients that have been shown to positively affect pork quality. Feeding protein or amino acid deficient diets will increase marbling. The downside is that this will impair growth performance and increase carcass fatness. Chromium works like insulin (lets the body absorb sugar) and may play a role in increasing rates of lean deposition. Betaine helps out methionine, which is an essential amino acid. Aside from being used for protein synthesis, it is also essential for many bodily chemical reactions. Adding betaine to diets has shown some potential to increase carcass leanness and/or growth performance. Magnesium has the potential to reduce energy-producing rates triggered by stress hormones. Creatine can be synthesized from 3 amino acids and works as a quick energy source for muscles. Feeding creatine may have the potential to improve pork quality. Feeding vitamin E is reported to significantly reduce drip loss in several studies. It will be of great value when pork products are developed with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) may help in the fight against diseases and even cancer. It could also reduce carcass fat, increase lean and possibly even improve feed efficiency.
Behavioural, endocrine and immune consequences of mixing in weaned piglets.
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Weaning often combines several stressful events such as sudden change of diet and mixing with unfamiliar piglets. These sudden changes induce behavioural, endocrine and immune alterations and are followed by a transient reduction of growth and digestive disorders. At weaning, the physiological effects of social reorganization could be masked by the much more important effects of the diet change. The aim of this study was to evaluate the reactivity of piglets to mixing by dissociating social reorganization from weaning itself. This study investigated the influence of mixing five days after weaning, when most of the acute physiological adjustments of weaning have disappeared. The response to mixing was assessed by measuring salivary cortisol, blood lymphocyte proliferation, interferon- production and behavioural activity. Cortisol levels were increased after mixing and returned to basal values within 24h and the blood lymphocyte level was not affected by mixing. Mixing increased resting behaviour. Piglets seemed to avoid conflicting encounters by diminishing the synchronization of their activities with their new group. The results of this study show that mixing young piglets is stressful but that animals develop behavioural strategies to adapt to the situation.
Effect of increased floor space on aggressive behaviour in male turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)
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Turkey production in recent years has become very competitive and highly specialized. Fast-growing strains of turkey broilers are usually housed in large buildings, which may contain 1000-25,000 birds at stocking densities up to 60 kg/m2. Under commercial rearing conditions, domestic turkeys are often aggressive towards ‘pen-mates’, and this may lead to serious injuries or even death. Restricted space, as a consequence of high stocking density might prevent the attacked bird from retreating from its opponent. This study examined the aggressive response in 10 groups of five familiar turkey toms, comparing behaviour to an unfamiliar conspecific that is introduced to two pens of different sizes. Groups were tested both in small and in a large pen for 30 min. In the small pen they observed significantly more aggressive pecks and threats to the introduced bird. In the larger pen introduced birds kept a greater distance from the group than in the small pen. The mean number of fights and chases per test was not different between the two pens. In summary the present study shows that in small groups of turkeys, an increase in floor space reduces the number of aggressive pecks and threats aimed at an introduced unfamiliar conspecific. It is concluded that one of the reasons for high injury rates in fattening turkey toms reared under commercial breeding conditions might be the restricted space due to high stocking density which prevents the birds from moving far enough away from attacking conspecifics to avoid injuries.
Milking of Brown Swiss and Austrian Simmental cows in a herringbone parlour or an automatic milking unit.
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Automatic milking systems (AMS), consisting of one or more automatic milking units in a loose-house system, have become increasingly common in recent years. The milking process as well as the management in AMS differ from conventional systems and may influence the health and welfare of cows in various ways. For example, the daily rhythm and herd synchronization is influenced as cows in the AMS get milked singly at any time of day. In this particular study Dairy cows’ stress responses during normal successful milking in a herringbone milking parlour (HMP) were compared with their responses during normal successful voluntary milking in an automatic unit. The study used 42 cows: 12 Simmental and 11 Brown Swiss in the AMU, and 10 Simmental and 9 Brown Swiss in the HMP. After effects of milk yield, day of lactation and time of day had been taken into account, milking lasted longer in the HMP than in AMU. Location of the teats by the robot took longer in Simmental than in Brown Swiss cows. Kicking and stepping with hind legs was less frequent in the AMU than in the HMP. Brown Swiss cows stepped less than Simmental cows in the AMU. There was no difference between groups in heart rate during milking. The AMS group had higher milk cortisol values than the HMP group. This was probably not related to milking itself, but to other aspects of the system, and the absolute values were not very high. In summary, cows showed more behavioural signs of discomfort and aversion in the HMP than in the AMU. Simmental cows may be more vulnerable during milking than Brown Swiss. There were no indications of more stress in the AMU than in the HMP.
Vocalization of farm animals as a measure of welfare
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Homeostasis is maintained or regained through the stimulation central nervous system by external events affecting emotion, hormonal concentrations affecting mood, and appetitive behaviour (thirst and hunger). Specific behaviours, such as vocalization, may accompany particular states of mood or emotion. Vocalizations (such as distress utterances) may also affect the welfare states of conspecifics. Therefore, vocalizations by farm animals could be an effective tool to use when attempting to understand welfare states. Research into this area has increased, with attempts to decipher the meaning of various vocalizations. This paper focuses on the current state of research into pig, cattle and poultry vocalizations. Current sound analysis techniques give the ability to discriminate, analyze and classify specific vocalizations. With these tools, future research should focus on connecting specific utterances with specific environments, behavioural contexts and physiological parameters. This information will provide non-invasive tools for judging welfare states.
Designing better water troughs: dairy cows prefer and drink more from larger troughs.
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This study examined the preference of cows on pasture for different types of water troughs. In initial studies, the cows were allowed to drink from two water troughs that differed in height and surface size. The cows preferred to drink from the taller (60 vs 30 cm), larger (approximately 50% more surface area) trough. In a second study the smaller trough was raised to the same height as the larger trough, and the cows did not should a strong preference. When given access to only one trough, for periods of 24 hrs, the cows drank more from the taller, larger trough. Water intake is particularly important for dairy cows and the results of this study suggests that high levels of intake will be more easily maintained if large, high troughs are used.
Cubicle housing systems for cattle: comfort of dairy cows depends on cubicle adjustment.
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The type of housing system a dairy cow is kept in can affect her welfare. Recently the industry has reduced the use of tethers in dairy cows because they cause stress, prevent social contact and cause problems with movement. More often dairy cows are housed in a cubicle system, but there are also some disadvantages to this system such as mild injury and the cows’ unwillingness to lie in the cubicle. The paper first discusses a survey of various farms in France that used the cubicle system. The survey compared various parameters associated with housing dairy cows in cubicles. It also examined cleanliness, lying/standing movements, behaviour, injuries and size. After the survey an experiment was conducted to compare different types of cubicles. Compliance with the recommended cubicle dimensions was quite low, as the cubicles often were too short or too narrow. The survey also determined that as the number of cubicles available for all the cows within the herd decreases, the level of injuries sustained by the cows increases. One strikingly important feature of the cubicle was the neck rail. More specifically the height of the neck rail in the cubicle can affect how a cow positions herself within the cubicle as well as her ability to stand up or lie down. High neck rails were found to make movement and positioning within the cubicle very difficult and were associated with a higher level of injury.
Immunohistochemistry for the detection of swine hepatitis E virus in the liver
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Swine hepatitis E virus (HEV) antigen was detected immunohistochemically in formalin-fixed, paraffinembedded hepatic tissue from 30 naturally infected pigs. Thirty pigs from 30 different herds were selected on the basis of positive results for reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Positive cells typically exhibited a red reaction product in the cytoplasm without any observable background staining. Swine HEV antigen was consistently detected in liver from all 30 pigs tested. A strong immunohistochemical signal was seen within a variable number of hepatocytes in multifocal lobules. The signal involved the majority of hepatocytes diffusely or was confined to foci of
liver cells. Positive immunohistochemical signals were also detected in small and large intestine, lymph node, tonsil, spleen, and kidney. The immunohistochemistry technique developed in this study proved useful for the detection of swine HEV in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues
taken from naturally infected pigs and may be a valuable tool in studying the pathogenesis of swine HEV infection.
The Science of Breeding
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Successful breeding herds require accurate heat detection, which is easy to learn. However, it is the ovulation time that varies and is difficult to predict. Good heat detection will help determine the optimal timing of insemination. Picking older boars and using them at least once a week is optimal for pheromones and for keeping the boar interested. It is important that boars be exposed to sows at a specific time because the sows standing reflex is so short. Nose to nose contact should be ensured and the boars should be actively rubbing or grunting to the sows. No more than 4 to 8 sows should be checked at a time. The ventilation should not be too fast, or the boar odour will be washed away. This is more a problem in the summer heat, and a solution could be the use of a “stink stick” (rag soaked in boar urine, semen, gel plug) to wave in front of the sows. Pre-estrus detection is also important to predict when standing heat will occur. Signs of pre-estrus include increased vocalization, increased activity, bar biting, climbing the crate, riding others, and/or a swelling/red vulva. It is important to note in gilts that the swollen vulva will actually reduce once estrus begins. Signs of estrus may include going off feed, restlessness, high-pitched grunt, rub marks on her back, pricked ears, and more. A sticky, tacky feel to vulva mucus is an indication of estrus as well. The generally agreed optimal insemination time is between 4 and 24 hours prior to ovulation. Using between 1 and 3 inseminations is effective, but inseminating too late in estrus can be detrimental. The life of the egg in the female is thought to be 8 hours, and insemination 4 hours beforehand is thought to be best. Inseminating too late can increase the chance of abnormal fertilization and may interfere with proper uterus preparation. Knowledge of weaning to estrus interval, duration of estrus, and estrus to ovulation intervals can help producers to set up an insemination schedule following certain characteristics of the sows heat (with special attention being given to gilts). Sows that return to heat early after weaning should be delayed and sows that return late should be bred immediately after detection.
Situation of Pork Production in Quebec
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The pork industry is of great importance to Quebec’s agricultural economy. Since 1981, Canada’s pork production has increased by 82%, with Quebec increasing 56%. Quebec’s contribution to overall Canadian production is shrinking. Considering the environmental difficulties faced in Quebec and the costs associated with it, there is a prediction of very weak growth in Quebec’s pork production. Despite the difficult situation in the hog markets since 2001 and the deterioration of the financial situation of certain producers, it is believed that most operations will survive the current crisis. Financing using debt is still the most often used method of financing. Using equity is interesting because it does not require short-term repayment of the debt but the return is over 15%. Very few agricultural operations can achieve that return. Quebec does not have any venture capital for agriculture, so banking support remains essential. Banks finance agriculture even though it is considered moderate risk. The industry faces a number of challenges, and the quality of pork from Quebec and the rest of Canada are no longer sufficient to ensure a place in the export markets. A better network and the creation of new synergies in the industry are essential to overcoming these challenges. These primary risks include market risk, management risk, production risk, environmental risks, and financial risks. In a period of good profitability it is important to build good working capital and not to overload the enterprise with non-productive investments. In periods of low prices it can be strategically worthwhile to take advantage of certain opportunities that the market offers: the acquisition of an enterprise at a low cost, and expansion projects. Production cost reducing investments and changes to improve performance in the herd should be realized in a depressed market in order to be at full production when prices improve.