Controlling energy costs in the barn

Posted in: Environment, Production by admin on July 14, 2011 | No Comments

 As we approach winter in tight financial times in the swine industry, producer’s thoughts are turning to how to best manage their heating and ventilation systems to keep their utility and energy expenses in line.

There are few publicly available production cost summaries.  One of the best is the information from the Center for Farm Financial Management at the University of Minnesota (www.finbin.umn.edu).  For the 4 year period of 2004-2007, wean-to-finish cooperators in this record program reported an average fuel and oil expense of $1.43 per pig and a utilities expense of $1.04 per pig.  Fuel and oil includes both propane and any diesel and gasoline charged to the swine unit for such items as tractors, lawn mowers, power washers, generators, pickups, etc.  Utilities include electricity and telephone/internet.  Surprisingly, both fuel and oil and utilities varied little for the 4 year period.  There was no indication in the data set of what the mix is of curtain sided versus tunnel wean-finish facilities.

Finishers of feeder pigs reported fuel and oil expenses of $0.71/pig and utility expenses of $0.62/pig.  For farrow-weaning cooperators (average inventory of 950 sows), the fuel and oil expense was $0.49 per pig weaned while utilities were $1.03/pig weaned.

Once facilities are tightened for winter operation and have the appropriate insulation in the ceiling and side walls, the major causes of excessive heating expenses are:

1. improper minimum ventilation rates
2. improper furnace sizing
3. improper temperature selection

As I work with a large number of different types of facilities and production systems in the upper Midwest and Canada, I continually find that producers have a very limited knowledge of their ventilation system.  In most situations, they don’t have any idea of the capacity of their system, nor do they fully understand the impact of small ventilation mistakes on propane usage.

The MWPS (Midwest Plan Service) recommends the following minimum ventilation rates for moisture control in swine facilities:

            Weaning – 30 lb (13.6 kg)        2 cfm/pig

            30-75 lb (13.6- 34 kg)             3 cfm/pig

            75-150 lb (34-68 kg)               7 cfm/pig

            >150 lb (> 68 kg)                     10 cfm/pig

            Gestating female                       12 cfm/female

            Farrowing                                 20 cfm/crate

These numbers don’t mean much to most producers until you add in the approximate capacity of various sized fans.  While such items as shutters, discharge cones, hoods, etc have an impact on the capacity of exhaust fans in negative pressure systems, the following rough estimates are valuable starting points for producers trying to understand their ventilation systems:

                        Fan blade diameter, in.  Approximate CFM

12                                                                                        1200

14                                            2000

16                                                                                        2500

20                                                                                        4500

24                                                                                        6000

36                                                                                        12000

Suppose that you have a 300 head weaned pig room, and there is a 12” fan running as the minimum fan.  This fan has the capacity for 4 cfm per pig, which is twice the recommended minimum ventilation rate.  Either this fan needs to be replaced with a smaller fan, or it needs to be connected to a variable speed controller and set to operate at 50% of its rated output.  Notice that I didn’t say 50% of its rated speed or 50% on the controller.  Generally small variable speed fans achieve 50% of their rated output at approximately 65-70% of their rated rpms.  Twenty four (24) in. diameter fans often achieve 50% of their rated output at 60-65% of their maximum rpms.

There is quite a bit of variation between ventilation controllers on how they control variable speed fans.  Depending on the controller specifics, a 50% setting as the minimum speed may or may not be anywhere close to the intended 50% operating performance.

Improper furnace sizing is usually the result of installation of a furnace that is too large for the facility.  A furnace is large enough if is shuts off occasionally on the coldest day of the year.  When furnaces are too large, the end result is rooms that have large temperature variations when the furnace operates.  Many times this results in the temperature at the controller temperature probe rising beyond the room set point, resulting in the ventilation system increasing the ventilation rate to remove the extra heat, which means the room cools and the process starts again.

Most ventilation controllers log the high and low temperature for the last day or since the controller was last reset.  Using the controller’s temperature logs, the high, low and set point temperatures should recorded on a daily basis.  When the facility is operating in the heating mode, the daily high temperature should never be at or above the set point temperature.  If the high gets to or above the set point, this suggests that the ventilation system responded by exhausting the heat just added to the room with the furnace.  To prevent this from happening, as a starting point, set the furnace to shut off at 2^oF (1^oC) below the room set point temperature.

Many producers make the mistake of assuming that the set point temperature for the controller will be the room temperature at the temperature probe.  This is not the case.  In cold weather, if the furnace is set to turn off 2^oF below the set point, the room temperature should be 2^oF colder than set point as the furnace ‘OFF’ temperature is the control point for the room.

As pigs grow and produce increasing amounts of heat, the ventilation system responds by increasing the ventilation rate.  If stage 1 is variable speed and has a 2^oF bandwidth, when stage 1 is operating at 100% speed, the room must be 2^oF warmer than set point.  This is because the controller is set to not attain 100% speed unless the room is 2^oF warmer.  Set point is just the decision point from which the controller makes decisions as to which devices to operate in the ventilation and heating system.

Photo caption:  Nursery heater-1 – Having more furnace or heater capacity than required leads to more variable temperatures and higher energy bills

Can we feed mycotoxin contaminated feed to pigs?

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Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi which may contaminate cereal grains, including barley and wheat.  The contamination is especially problematic when wet, warm conditions prevail during the growing season.  The ingestion of grain that is severely contaminated by DON will cause overt symptoms such as vomiting (hence the common name “vomitoxin”).  Less dramatic, but more frequently observed symptoms, reduced feed intake and growth, will result when pigs consume feed with a lower concentration of the mycotoxin.  The Canadian Feed Inspection Agency suggests that 1 ppm mycotoxin in feed is a safe upper limit for swine.

There are several feed additives available which reportedly reduce the impact of the mycotoxin on the pig.  Modes of action vary, and include; binding the mycotoxin in the gut and preventing absorption, chemically transforming the toxin to decrease its toxicity, or enhancing immune system function. 

The overall objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of these feed additives on the performance of nursery pigs fed diets contaminated with DON.

We used 5 nurseries for this experiment, 24 pens per nursery and 4 pigs per pen.  Pigs were fed starter diets for 14 days before being offered the treatment diets (BW 9.02 ± 0.36 kg) for the next 14 days.  All starter diets contained in-feed antibiotics. 

Treatment diets were formulated to meet or exceed all requirements for pigs of this age.  A positive control diet contained no contaminated corn, while the negative control diet was formulated with contaminated corn but no feed additives.  Samples of corn which were pre-analyzed and shown to contain DON were used for 70% of the corn (35% in the final diet) in diets 2 to 12 to provide 2 ppm DON in the final diet. This concentration was chosen because a preliminary experiment indicated this amount would cause a measurable reduction in feed intake but would not be fatal.

Performance results are shown in Table 1.  Pigs on the positive control tended to be heavier than those on the negative control by day 22 (0.50 kg, P = 0.09).  Overall, pigs consuming diets contaminated with DON had reduced ADG and ADFI compared to those consuming the positive control diet free of DON (P < 0.001).  Weekly measurements of body weight and feed intake showed that the decline in feed intake preceded the decline in growth (data not shown).

Average daily gain and ADFI of pigs on the positive control was superior to those consuming the DON contaminated diet, regardless of the feed additive used.  None of the feed additives ameliorated the effects of DON on feed intake or gain.  Feed efficiency was unaffected by treatment (P > 0.05).

Based on a literature search and our preliminary experiment which indicated that 2 ppm would elicit a detectable decrease in feed intake but was non-fatal, we formulated the treatment diets to this level.  Analyses of the diets indicated a mean concentration in the DON containing diets of 1.99 ppm, however, the individual diet concentrations ranged from 1.57 to 2.61 ppm. 

The 1 tonne totes of contaminated corn were initially sampled from about 10 different locations within each tote to a depth of about 1 metre.  These samples, composited by tote, were sent to two different labs for analyses for DON and moulds.  The results were extremely variable, within and between the labs.  Results from lab “A” ranged from 2.4 to 5.5 ppm with a mean of 4.5 while the results from lab “B” were 2.2 to 9.6 ppm and a mean of 6.9.  We didn’t use the totes which displayed the most variability, however, the DON concentrations in our diets were still quite variable (Table 1). 

The above illustrates the difficulty of working with mycotoxins.  Obtaining representative samples for mycotoxin testing is very difficult, however it is imperative that a good sample is obtained or the results will be irrelevant.  It has been estimated that almost 90% of the error associated with mycotoxin testing can be attributed to the method used to obtain the original sample.  Because contamination within a field may be localized, a truck-load which has come directly from a field at harvest is likely to contain only discrete areas of contamination.  Moreover, mycotoxin contaminated grains are heavier, thus within a truckload or during storage, some stratification may occur. 

The “Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA) of the USDA only recognizes samples which have been obtained using a probe.  Moreover, at least 4 samples should be taken from each lot, preferably 7 to 9, depending on the size and thickness of the trailer.  A 2000 to 2500 gram sample should be obtained.  This sample should be ground and then subsampled to obtain the approximately 100 gram sample required by the lab.  Producers are advised to contact the laboratory they will be using for the analyses to obtain specific sampling procedures and amounts required.

In summary, when nursery pigs were fed diets contaminated with approximately 2 ppm DON, feed intake declined by 10 % and growth by 7%.  None of the feed additives mitigated this response, however, actual concentrations of DON in the test diets varied. This variability is an illustration of the difficulties inherent in correct sampling and analysis for mycotoxins. 

Acknowledgements

Strategic funding was provided by Sask Pork, Alberta Pork, Manitoba Pork Council and Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food Development Fund.

Pork Insight was developed to address producer and industry needs for timely and accurate information related to pork production and is designed to help you find the information to help you fine -tune your operation. The Pork Insight database can be found online at www.prairieswine.com 

Table 1:  Analyzed concentrations of DON in treatment diets and effect on performance of nursery pigs (initial BW 9.02 kg).

^aDay 22 of the experiment, day 36 post-weaning.

^bUsed exclusively non-contaminated corn.

^cNegligible

^dFormulated to contain 2 ppm DON

^eDifferent from Trt 1, (positive control; P < 0.05).

^fDifferent from Trt 2, (negative control; P < 0.05).

Antibiotic-free pork production can be profitable

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As the market for pork becomes more and more differentiated, retailers and processors are looking for opportunities to meet the demand from consumers for products which meet their aspirations in terms of welfare, food safety and the environment.  This trend is well-developed in Europe where there is a wide range of pork categories such as outdoor reared, antibiotic free and organic.  Now antibiotic-free pork production is increasing significantly in the USA.  The question for producers is whether any loss in production efficiency and the additional costs involved are offset by the price premium received. European experience suggests that the additional cost per pig is in the region of $5.24.  However, a paper presented at the recent American Association of Swine Veterinarians by Darwin Kohler, James Schneider, and Chad Bierman demonstrated that removal of antibiotics on one farm did not lead to a significant loss of performance.

“The use of antibiotics in livestock feeds is meeting with increasing opposition,” note the authors. “The controversy revolves around the level of antibiotic fed to livestock for non-therapeutic use, which in turn causes an increase in bacterial resistance in humans and known allergic reactions or toxicity.”  The consumers of meat products today are asking for a more ‘natural’ food product.

European opposition has been stronger than in the US.  A ban of over-the-counter antibiotics was implemented in Sweden in 1986, Norway in 1992, Finland in 1996, Denmark in 1998, and Poland and Switzerland in 1999.  Current EU regulations state that antimicrobials used in either human or in veterinary therapeutic medicine are prohibited from use as feed-additive growth promoters in livestock.

Based on experience in Sweden and expert opinions, the likely performance effects of removing antibiotics and the cost implications are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Technical assumptions of antibiotic ban

Trait                                        Most likely change

PSY                                         Decreased 1 pig

Weaning age                             Increased 1 week

Wean to 25kg                          Increased 5 days

FCR 25-114kg                                    Increased 1.5%

Pre-wean mortality                   Increased 1.5%

Grow/finish mortality                 Increased 0.49%

Net additives cost                     Increased $0.25/pig

Total cost/pig                            Increased $5.24/pig

Today, one form of antibiotic free (ABF) pork production is beginning to be used in the United States, note the authors.  It is based on no birth-to-market antibiotic use of any kind, no growth promotants, no natural or artificial hormones, no ionophores, no animal proteins and no animal by-products. “Can antibiotic free (ABF) pork production be more successful in the United States than indicated in Table 1?” they ask.

Case study farm shows little effect on performance

The case study reported in the paper is a 1,000-sow farrow to finish conventional confinement system.  This system has been closed to live animal introduction since 1996.  Management was interested in pursuing ABF pork production.  Small amounts of antibiotic had been used or needed in their herd, and a premium was being offered for antibiotic free pork.  Pigs are vaccinated for Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and the herd is PRRS stable.  Gilts are raised internally and there is an off-site boar stud.  Since December 2004 no antibiotics, growth promotants, or animal by-products have been used in pigs from birth to market.  The farm maintains records of inoculations, illnesses and injuries, treatments, etc.  Very few pigs require treatment.  If prohibited medication is used in treatment, the pigs are marked for identification and are sent to conventional markets.  “Products such as zinc, copper, probiotics, enzymes, botanicals, enzymes, mannan oligosaccharides, egg antibodies, oil of oregano, and organic acids are allowed to be used in place of antibiotics in the ABF program,” explain the authors.  “However, these products are not necessary in this herd and are not in use as replacements for antibiotics.”

Table 2 shows the sow herd performance before and after ABF.  The ABF program does allow for antibiotic usage in the sow herd.  Antibiotic usage in the sow herd changed little over the six-year period.  Comparisons of traits between the ‘before ABF’ and ‘after ABF’ periods are both positive and negative and show no consistent advantage to the use of antibiotics.  Pigs had received an antibiotic at birth before ABF.  The expectation would be an increase in pre-weaning mortality. An increase from 8.2% to 9.9% did occur but was not reflected in pigs weaned per mated female per year.  Adjusted 21-day litter weaning weight is 13 pounds (5.9kg) heavier after ABF with an increase in pounds weaned per sow per year of 8%.  Only pre-weaning mortality was in agreement with the negative predictions shown in Table 1.

Table 2: Sow herd performance before and after ABF production

                                                            Before ABF                After ABF

                                                            Jul 02 – Dec 04                      Jan 05 – Jun 07

Average total pigs/litter                  11.4                             11.4

Average pigs born alive /litter                     10.4                             10.6

Pre-wean mortality (%)                   8.2                               9.9

Average age at weaning                            18.2                             20.5

Farrowing rate                                            93                               91.6

Litters/mated female/year                           2.56                             2.52

Pig wnd/mated female/year                        23.8                             23.8

Table 3 shows the herd’s finishing performance before and after ABF. Although previous reports show poorer performance with ABF production, few differences are noted here.  Only feed conversion showed a noticeable drop in performance.

Table 3: Finishing performance before and after ABF

Grow finish trait                                             2002 – 2004                2005 – 2007

Av. Lwt. of pigs entered (kg)                                18.2                             21.1

Av. Lwt of pigs sold (kg)                                      114.5                           118.4

Av. days to market                                               114.6                           115.2

Av. daily feed intake (kg/day)                    2.22                             2.36

Av. daily gain (g/day)                                            839                              839

Feed conversion ratio                                           2.65                             2.69*

*Feed conversion adjusted to common entry and sale weight

The only significant difference is in FCR and the authors calculated this to add $0.68 to production cost.  Finisher death loss was slightly higher after ABF resulting in a cost increase of $0.07 per market hog.  Average drug cost before ABF of $0.18 per market hog resulted in a saving after ABF.  Pigs were no longer sold grade and yield during the last three years therefore carcass yield and percent lean were assumed to be unchanged.

ABF premium gives bigger margins

Additional ABF premium was calculated as the difference received in harvest price by this herd versus other similar herds and selling grade and yield to the same market that this herd had been selling to before ABF.  Using this method, the additional ABF premium was estimated to be $4.26 per head in 2005 and 2006.  “The ABF premium tends to inversely fluctuate with the base grade and yield price and is much higher today when market prices are lower than in the previous two years, note the authors.  “Current additional ABF premium for November 2007 is $16.62 per head.”   Overall, taking the differences in performance and costs into account, there was a net average benefit of $7.89 for ABF production compared to the period when antibiotics were used.

Little or no differences in production numbers were observed on this farm.  The increase in cost of production has been shown to be $0.32 per head.  “Success is attributed to the use of appropriate genetics, maintaining a closed herd and maintaining a high level of biosecurity to keep pathogens out,” say the authors.  “Good management in areas of proper husbandry, nutrition management, environmental control, prompt treatment or removal of sick pigs and attention to detail is essential.”  Not only does this case study illustrate the feasibility of ABF production, but it demonstrates significant profit potential in today’s niche markets, they conclude.

Water medication systems

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Increasingly, pork production systems around the world are using drinking water as the delivery mechanism for a variety of nutritional and health related products. These products can range from acidifiers and probiotics at weaning to vaccines to antimicrobials to nutritional supplements, etc. throughout the growth process.

Delivery of these products via the drinking water system most often relies on a pump and mixing chamber to incorporate these materials into the drinking water. In the US, most medicators are based on a fixed ratio of 1 part stock solution per 128 parts drinking water.

With the increased usage of water delivered products has come an increase in the risks associated with these delivery systems. The following are common mistakes made by US producers in using water as the delivery mechanism for a variety of products.

Many products, especially vaccines, require that the pigs consume the product within 4-6 hours of reconstitution. Recent data from Iowa State University suggests that 100% of weaned pigs will visit a nipple drinker within a 4-6 hour time period beginning at 8 am. Thus, timing of delivery of the product to the drinking water is of critical importance if all pigs in a population are to receive an adequate amount of the product.

Figure 1:  Effect of season on 24-hour water usage pattern in a 1200 head wean-finish facility 5 months after weaning in central Nebraska. Data courtesy Dicamusa.com

In thermo-neutral conditions, both feed and water usage generally begin increasing around 6 am in the morning, with a mid-morning peak around 10 am, followed by the day’s peak in disappearance at 2-3 pm. By 6 pm, both feed and water intake have returned to a relatively low level. There is very little feed or water intake during the night. Drinking water disappearance, and by association feed disappearance, is minimal during late evening and early morning hours.

If pigs are grown to slaughter in warm conditions (summer conditions in much of the upper Midwest), these patterns change. Feed and water intake now begins at approximately 4 am, with the morning peak at 8-9 am. This morning peak is followed by a mid-day decline in feed and water disappearance, with a resumption in intake in the early evening hours. Even in these conditions, there is limited drinking water usage during late evening or early morning hours.

In North America, commonly used water medicators are often rated at a capacity of up to 26.5 litres (7 US gal)/minute. In almost every instance, they are connected to water lines in the facilities that have a capacity of 21 liters (5.5 gal) per minute (19 mm/3/4” inside diameter piping). This suggests that the sizing of the water delivery pipes in the facility are the limit to water flow. However, it is quite common to see water medication devices connected to water delivery lines with 13 mm (1/2”) diameter hoses, which have a capacity of only 9.5 liters (2.5 US gal)/minute. A common complaint by producers who make this mistake is ‘my pigs don’t like the medicine in the water because water intake always decreases when I water medicate’. The real cause of the decline in drinking water is the restriction in water flow associated with the water medication device connection.

A second common mistake is a stock solution reservoir that is too small. Many producers assume that water usage is relatively stable throughout a 24-hour period. If the pig’s drinking water usage is 4 litres (1.1 US gal) per day and there are 1000 pigs in the facility, the total stock solution required at 1:128 dilution is 31.25 litres (8.3 US gal). If the stock solution reservoir is filled twice daily, this suggests that a 16 litre (4.2 US gal) capacity reservoir is adequate. In reality, almost 70% of the drinking water is consumed from 6 am to 4 pm. If the reservoir is filled at 7 am and 5 pm, the capacity of the reservoir needs to be at least 22 (5.8 gal) litres or there is a risk that the reservoir will be empty prior to the next recharge, resulting in pigs drinking water that has no stock solution added.

Many producers fail to account for the impact of pressure regulators on water flow. If the incoming water line pressure is 275 kPa (40 psi) and a regulator is used to lower the line pressure to 140 kPa (20 psi), water flow is reduced to 71% of what it was at the original pressure. This suggests that sizing of water lines is even more important than many producers think.

Water filters are often installed in delivery lines to deal with sediment issues associated with the on-site well, etc. In some instances, the location of the filters makes them very difficult to routinely flush or clean, while in others, a routine of regular maintenance is not planned for.

Finally, don’t overlook the water meter as a flow restrictor in the water line. Many swine facility contractors install water meters with 16 mm (5/8”) orifices that have 19 mm (¾”) NPT connectors. These meters are generally $50-75 cheaper than meters with larger orifices.

Photo Captions:

Medicator-1 – Two medicators for 2400 wean-finish pigs with 125 litre (33 gal) stock solution reservoir

Medicator-2 – Water medicator rated at 26.5 litres (7 gal)/minute incorrectly connected to 19 mm (3/4”) inside diameter piping with 13 mm (1/2”) washing machine hose.

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Ultrasound scanning – more than just pregnancy testing

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In Europe, ultrasonography – for which the term “scanning” is used – has been implemented increasingly on swine production units. This technique is usually performed through the skin, usually of the abdomen, without the need to penetrate the animal via the rectum, as is the case in horses or cattle (Figure 1). The main purpose for scanning pigs is to test for pregnancy, indeed, scanning is superior to other methods of pregnancy diagnosis. The main advantage is that it allows for early use (starting day 20/21 after breeding; Figure 2A), combined with its accuracy at even this early stage of pregnancy (close to 100 %). The main disadvantage is the relatively high price of the equipment although, over recent years, prices have decreased dramatically and good machines are currently available for a reasonable cost.

However, scanning offers more than merely testing for pregnancy. With ultrasonography, both the non-pregnant uterus (Figure 2B) and the ovaries (Figure 2C) can be visualized. Imagine the many situations when you wanted to have a look inside the animal but failed for obvious reasons. Using ultrasound, gilts and sows are now virtually transparent! Besides pregnancy testing, this unique form of ultrasonography can be used for multiple purposes in breeding pig facilities. Those purposes are:

1.  Checking the ovulation process: The ovary and all the ovarian structures that appear around ovulation are well described. This allows for checking when ovulation occurs in individuals and in groups of breeding sows. Scanning to check for ovulation is useful whenever there are questions relating to the breeding management and timing of insemination in particular.

2.  Checking for puberty (i.e. sexual maturity): As the pig matures sexually and changes from the pre-pubertal to the pubertal stage, there is uterine growth and the gilts commence their cycling activity, with the first ovulation and subsequent development of corpora lutea or “yellow bodies” in the ovary. Scanning allows for the visualization of the uterus and the ovaries in both the pre-pubertal and the pubertal gilt and the assessment of both organs can give valuable information on sexual maturity. If the ovary is scanned, animals having only small follicles are considered pre-pubertal, while those having large, pre-ovulatory follicles or ovarian structures indicating completed ovulation (corpora lutea) are pubertal. If the uterus is used for assessment, the uterine size has proven to be a reliable measure of whether gilts are pubertal or not. In order to make this assessment, the uterus has to be imaged as a cross-section, then measured in two dimensions and the cross-sectional area calculated. Pre-pubertal gilts have a cross-sectional area of ≤ 1cm², while it is ≥ 1.2cm² in pubertal animals. Though separate assessment of either the ovaries or the uterus gives almost 100% correct diagnoses, maximum accuracy is achieved if the assessment involves both organs concurrently. Scanning to check for puberty might be desired in case of low gilt performance, in terms of low conception rates or small litter sizes.

3.      Examination of females with reduced or complete cessation of fertility: If a female displays reduced fertility or absence of fertility, this can be for different reasons. Scanning is directly helpful if the reason is the female herself, with defects related to the ovaries and/or the uterus. Ovarian cysts are usually considered one main reason for the animals’ failure to breed. However, it is only polycystic ovarian degeneration (POD), where the ovary has only cystic ovarian structures, which is fatal to fertility, while single or multiple cysts accompanied by “normal” ovarian structures are more frequent but of lesser significance. Cysts can indeed be identified using ultrasonography, (Figure 2D) and females with POD quickly culled, thereby reducing the number of non-productive days. Amongst females exhibiting fertility problems, many have uterine infections such as inflammation of the endometrium or lining of the uterus. Although the chronic inflammation is more prevalent, the acute type can sometimes be observed combined with a purulent vaginal discharge. Unfortunately, scanning allows only for the detection of acute endometritis, and recognition usually occurs on the basis of abnormal flocculent or clotted fluid within the uterus.

The echotexture is another parameter used to describe the appearance of the uterus in ultrasound images and uses the distribution and frequency of lighter and darker areas for description. The echotexture can be described as homogeneous or heterogeneous and undergoes normal physiological changes during the oestrus cycle. It is heterogeneous when females approach or are in heat and larger follicles are present, and homogeneous at any other stages of the oestrous cycle, for example when corpora lutea are present. Any deviation from the physiologically normal status might be considered abnormal and is associated with reduced fertility. A third parameter, uterine size, might also be helpful in assessment of whether a uterus is functioning normal or not. The size is determined as described for gilts and is given as the sectional area. Uterine size has been shown to correlate with uterine weight and the weight itself helpful in the diagnosis of uterine disorders. For instance, the mould toxin zearalenone, which can cause reproductive problems in pigs, has been associated with very small (light) and very heavy reproductive tracts.

With its multipurpose usage potential, ultrasonography can be much more than merely a procedure to test for pregnancy. Given that pregnancy diagnosis may be performed on day 20 or 21 after breeding, non-pregnant females can be detected right at the time they are presumed to return to service, so they can be subjected to very close heat detection supervision. The concurrent assessment of the ovaries and the uterus in these non-pregnant females gives additional benefit. As mentioned before, animals with POD can be culled immediately. However, as a number of non-pregnant animals will have corpora lutea or small follicles, producers might be willing to treat them hormonally to induce oestrus and/or ovulation. Finally, animals with obvious uterine alterations, such as abnormal intrauterine fluid or atypical echotexture and thus reduced fertility, can be quickly sent to slaughter. This entire procedure, in combination with routine pregnancy testing, including ovarian as well as uterine diagnosis, will certainly increase productivity through the reduction of non-productive days.

 Johannes Kauffold (Email: kauffold@vet.upenn.edu)  and Gary Althouse(Email: gca@upenn.edu) are at the Department for Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania and Neville Beynon is with Veyx Pharma and based in the UK, (Email: nevillebeynon@ntlworld.com.)

Figure 1: Procedure of transabdominal ultrasonography of pigs. A linear transducer is placed horizontally just above the last pair of teats onto the ventral right abdomen (1A).

Figure 2. A): Image obtained from a gravid (pd+) pig showing an example of a uterine cross-section containing embryonic fluid and the embryo itself (arrow) on day 20 after breeding. B) Cross-sections of an ingravid (non-pregnant) uterus. C) Ovary with several corpora lutea. Two are marked with arrows. D) Ovary with large follicular cysts (black “pockets”).

Top reasons for missing nursery closeouts

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Introduction

Feeding and management of the weaned pig has a significant impact on not only nursery performance but also can affect subsequent performance in the grow-finish phase. Though costs incurred in the nursery phase represent approximately 15% of the total cost to produce a pig there is a lot variation between farms and in many cases opportunity to decrease this.  Tremendous strides have been made in improving the performance of early weaned pigs in the last decade.  These improvements are due to rapid development and implementation of advanced technologies in the areas of improved feeding programs, increased weaning age and weight, and the development of innovative management systems.  This article will cover some of the practical reasons for missed closeouts.

1.      Age and weight of the pig at weaning

Weaning age of the litter is primarily dictated by breeding herd requirements but a very important consideration is to choose an age and weight at weaning that suits the nursery facilities and the quality of the nutritional and management program available.  Weaning at any age is stressful for pigs but the younger and the lighter the pig at weaning the higher its temperature requirements and the lower its ability to digest cereal-vegetable protein based diets.  Two large weaning age commercial studies conducted by Main et al. (2004) found that wean-to-finish ADG, mortality, off-test weight/d of age and weight sold per pig weaned improved as weaning age increased from 12 to 21 and 15.5 to 21.5 days of age.  These improvements in growth and mortality largely occurred in the initial 42 days after weaning, with some further improvements in growth in finishing.  The influence of age (15 to 21.5 days) on weight at weaning and on 42-day weight and income over costs for limited and non-limited grow-finish space is shown in Table 1.

These studies predict that an increase of one day in age at weaning will increase weaning weight by 0.26 kg.  Income over costs ($) per day increase in weaning age increased by $0.58 and $0.39 for limited and non-limited space situations, respectively.  Each additional kg of weight at weaning increased 42 d post-weaning weight by 3.48 kg and margin over feed costs per pig weaned by $2.27 and $1.52 for the limited and non-limited scenarios.  Using data from eight reports, Bussieres calculated that a one kg increase in weaning weight would increase nursery exit weight (42 to 56 days) by 2.76 kg (range 2.14 to 3.91) and would reduce days to market by 6.0 (range 3.5 to 11.5).  He estimated that each 0.5 kg extra in weaning weight would reduce nursery production costs by $1.60 Cdn per pig.

It can be concluded that the relative importance of age and weight at weaning in influencing post-weaning performance will depend on whether or not the actual age at weaning is above the critical age at which pigs can perform to their potential in the nursery.  The recent reports suggest that for many large-scale multi-site units the heavier and older pigs are at time of weaning, the easier they are to manage in the nursery and the lower risk of disease and mortality.

2.      Barn cleaning and setup

It is imperative that all nursery rooms are properly cleaned and disinfected with an appropriate disinfectant and given adequate time to dry prior to arrival of new pigs to the barn.  The primary objective when washing barns is to get everything clean.  This involves removing all organic matter, washing thoroughly to remove all manure and feed. Disinfecting is important but does not do any good unless the barn is clean.  Pre-soaking the barn before trying to wash will speed up the washing process.  It is important that everything is washed including ceilings, water cups and lines, walls, floors, feeders, mats /trays (top and bottom) and bowls.  The room should be allowed to dry before disinfecting. The act of drying itself will kill many organisms by desiccation and a dry room is easier to inspect to see if everything is clean.  A disinfectant rotation program should be used in consultation with your vet.

Room preparation and setup prior to pig arrival is the final step. Set feeders in place and tie down feed spouts. Replace all rods that may have been removed for cleaning. Damaged feeders and other equipment should be fixed and other required maintenance carried out as needed.  Water cups or nipple drinkers should be checked to ensure clear water supply, adequate flow rate, and they are adjusted to the correct height for the incoming pigs.  Rooms should be pre-warmed before the pigs arrive, with controllers and inlets set for new pigs.

3.      Piglet care and management during the first 48 hours

The first challenge of the newly weaned pig is finding feed and water. Right after weaning weaned pigs exhibit feeding behavior similar to nursing the sow where all go to the feeder at the same time. Many producers use feeding mats or trays for the first few days post-weaning on which feed is placed multiple times per day in addition to feed being available in the feeder.  It is important that feed mats or trays have a lip or rim on them to prevent piglets from pushing the feed off into the pit and limited to use for 1-3 days as feed wastage tends to be higher compared with when pigs eat from a conventional dry feeder.  Teaching feeding behaviour to pigs that do not start up on feed is critical during the first 24-48 hours.  This involves identifying the pigs not eating, taking a small handful of feed, wetting it with water and placing in the pig’s mouth. The moist feed will stick to the pigs tongue and it will swallow it.  Gently place the pig at the feeder so the pig associates food in its mouth with the feed in the feeder.  Water intake is critical to the newly weaned pig.  Nipple drinkers or cups should be easily accessed during the first few days after weaning.  Water pressure should be < 20 psi. Water should be allowed to drip during the first 12 hours so pigs can find water more easily.  Monitor pig lying behaviour to ensure pigs are warm and comfortable. If pigs are lying on their side through the pen this is a good indication that room temperature is correct for the age and weight of pig, however, if pigs are huddled on top of each other this indicates they are too cold. 

4.      Diets and feeding program

Our objective when designing diets is to maximize feed intake and performance while minimizing feed cost from weaning to 25 kg.  In formulating diets for weaned pigs a number of important principles to adhere to:

1)        For a cost effective feeding program we must adjust pigs to the simplest and relatively lowest cost diets (grain and soybean meal) as quickly as possible after weaning.

2)        A newly weaned pig is in a very energy dependent stage of growth and maximizing feed intake is very important.

3)        Early diets need to contain ingredients that are highly digestible (fishmeal, whey powder, etc) due to the limited digestive enzyme capacity of newly weaned pig.

Regardless of the phase feeding strategy a producer decides to use, development of a proper feed budget will help keep nursery feed cost competitive.  The budget should be adapted to the age and weight of pig for each particular nursery.  Strict adherence to the feed budget is critical to prevent feeding the expensive diets after the desired weight range is reached.  A common mistake in the field is overfeeding of the more expensive diets, which results in high feed cost in the nursery.  Feed budget monitoring target vs actual usage per pig is very important for all barns to ensure budgets are being correctly followed. A suggested feeding program based on pig age at weaning is outlined in Table 2.

5.      Ingredient quality and diet manufacturing

In selecting specialty ingredient sources for early nursery diets it is important to remember that all sources are not equal and this is very much the case when we consider whey powder or permeate and fishmeal.  There can be very significant differences in quality of different sources of the former products.  We normally specify that only an edible grade whey powder or permeate be used in early-weaned pig diets. The main concern with some of these sources is the type of drying process (drum vs spray dried) used and in some cases blending of different grades of products occurs.  The newly weaned pig is sensitive to differences in ingredient quality and will respond (feed intake and growth rate) accordingly if quality is sub-optimal. 

Another important and integral part in the manufacture of high quality starter diets is avoiding cross-contamination of ingredients and feed in the feed mill.  Weaned pigs are very sensitive to non-desirable ingredients such as canola meal, screenings, urea, etc and will reduce feed intake even with very small quantities of these ingredients getting into starter diets.  Some potential areas of concern for cross-contamination in commercial feed mills are receiving pits, ingredient weigh scales, and out-loading bins.

6.      Diet composition and cost transparency

Like all other phases of production it is important that producers have full transparency in terms of diet composition, all ingredient costs, and toll manufacturing rate for all nursery diets.  In my experience it has not been uncommon for us to increase nursery margin over feed cost by $1-3 per pig for some new clients by in part giving full transparency on diet composition, ingredient costs, and setting a toll rate and monitoring ingredient costs monthly with a feed mill for nursery diets.

7.      Feeder type and management

Feeder type and management can have a very significant impact on pig performance and feed cost in the nursery.  A trial conducted at Agricultural Institute of Northern Ireland by O’Connell et al. (1999) comparing different nursery feeders found some interesting differences.  They compared 4 different feeder types (Dry multi-space, Wet and dry multi-space, Maximat (Echberg), Lean Machine (similar to Domino), and Verba) for the nursery.  They found a trend for improved growth rate for the dry and wet and dry multi-space feeders, due to the higher level of feed intake compared with the other feeders. Feed conversion was poorer with the wet and dry multi-space than the dry multi-space feeders, which resulted in a $1.16/pig higher feed cost between 4 and 11 weeks of age.  They also noted that the wet and dry multi-space feeders were more difficult to manage. Based on the research and commercial experience economic and biological performance is optimized in the nursery with a multi-space dry feeder.

Feeder management can and does have a very significant impact on feed efficiency and cost in the nursery.  Feeder type and diet form will also dictate how frequently and how aggressively feeders need be adjusted.  For a dry multi-space feeder we aim to see no more than 20% of the pan covered with feed.  Feeders need to be checked daily and adjusted as required.

8.      Standing Operating Procedures and Training

Having standing operating procedures (SOP) clearly detailed and in place for pig husbandry, barn management, pig health care, and feed management is important to achieve economic and biological performance targets.  In addition ensuring all barn staff clearly understands the SOPs and what is required from them daily is an integral part of this.  Training for new staff members, which includes reviewing and ensuring they understand SOPs is an equally key part in helping to ensure targets are achieved. A review process needs to be put in place whereby daily procedures are reviewed quarterly to ensure SOPs are being implemented as set out. 

9.      Performance analysis

Reviewing performance at the end of each batch for AIAO or month (for previous 3 or 6 months) for continuous flow barns is important to know if biological and economic targets are being achieved.  Performance data should be adjusted for explainable sources of variation such as exit weight.  Failure to maintain accurate performance data for the nursery will leave it impossible to determine if targets are being achieved and where efforts need to be focused to make up short falls.

Photo captions:

Nursery heater – Prior to placing pigs in the nursery, the heating system should be checked and cleaned

Nursery_pigs_feeding-2 – Offering feed on trays for the first few days after weaning increases feed intake

Water bowl-1 – Fixing drinkers at the correct height for newly weaned pigs is important to ensure good water intake

The effect of perceived environmental background on qualitative assessments of pig behaviour

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Qualitative behaviour assessment is an integrative methodology that characterizes behaviour as a dynamic, expressive body language (e.g. as anxious or content). Such assessments are sensitive to environmental context, which makes them informative but also vulnerable to observers’ biased views of that context. This study investigated whether and how perceived environmental background affects observers’ qualitative assessments of pig behaviour. Fifteen growing pigs were filmed individually against a neutral background while interacting with a novel object. The footage of each pig was digitally isolated from that background and pasted against indoor and outdoor backgrounds filmed in real time. The 30 video clips thus obtained were shown to 16 observers, who were led to believe these were 30 different pigs filmed in either an indoor or an outdoor pen. Free-choice profiling was used to instruct observers in qualitative behaviour assessment, and data were analysed with generalized Procrustes analysis. Analysis of variance found a significant effect of environmental background on pig scores on the second consensus dimension (confident/content–cautious/nervous), but not on the first (playful/active–bored/lethargic). However, 95% confidence intervals and indexes for the variability attributable to environmental background, calculated for both consensus dimensions, indicated that any such effects should be relatively small. High correlations were found between indoor and outdoor pig scores on both consensus dimensions (r >/ 0.95). Together these results suggest that environmental background may slightly shift, but is unlikely to seriously distort, observer characterizations of pig expression. Last, we discuss possible strategies for reducing the effect of contextual bias on qualitative behaviour assessment.

The effect of perceived environmental background on qualitative assessments of pig behaviour

Pigs learn what a mirror image represents and use it to obtain information

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Mirror usage has been taken to indicate some degree of awareness in animals. Can pigs, obtain information from a mirror? When put in a pen with a mirror in it, young pigs made movements while apparently looking at their image. After 5 h spent with a mirror, the pigs were shown a familiar food bowl, visible in the mirror but hidden behind a solid barrier. Seven out of eight pigs found the food bowl in a mean of 23 s by going away from the mirror and around the barrier. Naïve pigs shown the same looked behind the mirror. The pigs were not locating the food bowl by odour, did not have a preference for the area where the food bowl was and did not go to that area when the food bowl was visible elsewhere. To use information from a mirror and find a food bowl, each pig must have observed features of its surroundings, remembered these and its own actions, deduced relationships among observed and remembered features and acted accordingly. This ability indicates assessment awareness in pigs. The results may have some effects on the design of housing conditions for pigs and may lead to better pig welfare.

 Pigs learn what a mirror image represents and use it to obtain information

Use of Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS) in swine diets

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Introduction

The rapid expansion of the North American ethanol industry has resulted in a large increase in the price of cereal grains. Grain prices have been further fuelled by low yields of wheat due to droughts in certain parts of the world. Crop farms have historically produced grain crops for food for people and livestock. The ethanol industry is adding a third major use. With the large increase in feed costs we have experienced in Canada in recent months it is important we consider and optimize the use of alternative ingredients if we are to keep our feed costs in check. Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS) is one such product and a co-product of ethanol production. As the ethanol industry in North America has expanded, there has been a subsequent increase in the production and availability of DDGS.

Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS)

Cereal grains including barley, corn, rye, sorghum, and wheat can be used for producing ethanol and subsequently DDGS. However, corn and, more recently, wheat have been the major grains of choice for ethanol production in North America. The interest in DDGS is mainly due to the three-fold increase in the concentration of nutrients (protein, fat, vitamins and minerals) in the DDGS compared with its parent grain, which could potentially make DDGS a better feed ingredient (Table 1). The nutrient profile of corn DDGS is quite different from wheat DDGS. Corn DDGS contains more fat, while wheat DDGS is higher in crude protein. Some considerations to take into account when purchasing DDGS are:

• Quality and consistency of the final product
• Ease of handling (loading & unloading) and transport
• Incidence of mycotoxins – is the plant testing and how often?
• Nutrient profile of DDGS – total fat, protein, fibre content, etc.
• Amino acid content and availability.
• Know plant where sourcing from – all sources are not the same and there can be large differences between sources in nutrient content and value.

Nutrient composition of DDGS

DDGS is a source of protein, energy and available phosphorous to swine diets and will replace a portion of the grain, protein source(s) and supplemental phosphorous. It is important to remember that that DDGS products are still evolving, which emphasizes the importance of knowing the source you are using as it is likely a much different product than sources produced from older generation plants 3-5 years ago. In corn DDGS, the crude protein can range from 22 to 32%, while total lysine ranges from 0.40 to 0.99%, whereas in the wheat-based DDGS, the crude protein ranges 23 to 37%, while total lysine ranges from 0.49 to 0.94% (Payne 2007). Typical levels of the most important nutritional components of corn and wheat DDGS are shown in Table 1 and compared with the levels in corn and wheat.

Table 1: Nutrient profile of wheat, whet DDGS, corn and corn DDGS as fed

Item                                                Wheat             Wheat             Corn                Corn

                                                                               DDGS¹                                    DDGS¹

Moisture (%)                                       12.0                   9.8              11.0                 11.9

Protein (%)                                          13.5                 35.0                8.3                 27.2

Fat (%)                                                  1.9                   6.0                3.9                   9.5

ADF (%)                                               4.0                 13.6                2.8                   9.9

NDF (%)                                             13.5                 33.1                9.6                 25.3

Total lysine (%)                                    0.34                 0.90              0.26                 0.85

Av. phosphorous (%)                           0.19                 0.39              0.04                 0.52

ME, Mcal/kg                                       3.21                 2.97              3.42                 3.34

NE, Mcal/kg                                        2.54                 2.00              2.73                 2.45

¹  New generation ethanol plants

If we look at the amino acid availability for corn DDGS and specifically lysine, which is the first limiting amino acid for swine, we observe a large range in lysine digestibility between sources (Table 2).

The variation in lysine content and digestibility can be attributed to a number of factors:

1)        Variation associated with parent grain due to variety, regional or environmental differences, drying and storing.

2)        Perhaps the most significant reason is the variation in the drying process from one plant to the next for the DDGS. Drying temperature can range 120 to 620 ^oC and if not controlled effectively, over-heating can cause significant damage and renders lysine and other heat susceptible amino acids unavailable to the pig post digestion.

Table 2:  Concentration and digestibility of crude protein and amino acids in 36 samples

                of corn DDGS

                                                                                  Standard ileal digestibility (%)

Item                                      Average          Av.                  High                Low                 CV

Crude protein (%)                      27.5            72.8                 63.5                   84.3              7.32

Lysine (%)                                 0.78            62.3                 43.9                   77.9              12.2

Methionine (%)                          0.55            81.9                 73.7                   89.2                5.0

Threonine (%)                            1.06            70.7                 61.9                   82.5                7.4

Tryptophan (%)                          0.21            69.9                 54.2                   80.1              10.0

Isoleucine (%)                            1.01            75.2                 66.5                   82.6                6.3

Valine (%)                                  1.35            74.5                 65.8                   81.9                6.3

From: Stein et al., 2006

The low digestibility of lysine is often associated with low analyzed total lysine in the sample. Calculating the lysine to crude protein ratio gives an estimate of the quality of the lysine in the sample. If the lysine to crude protein ratio is 2.80% or greater for corn DDGS then this sample has an average or above average quality, but if the ratio is lower than 2.80%, then it has reduced quality. Because lysine is usually the first limiting amino acid in diets fed to swine, corn DDGS samples with a lysine to crude protein ratio that is less than 2.80 should not be used in swine diets. Because wheat DDGS is a relatively new product there are few published reports that provide estimates of amino acid digestibility for swine and those available are with product from older generation plants that may not be representative of product available today from the new generation plants.

The digestibility of phosphorous in the DDGS is greater than in the parent grain and may be a result that some bonds that bind phosphorous to the phytate complex in the parent grain have been hydrolyzed during the fermentation process in the ethanol plants, which makes more phosphorous available for absorption. If DDGS is included in swine diets this reduces the need for supplemental inorganic phosphorous and decreases the amount of phosphorous that is excreted in the manure. Because of the variation among sources of DDGS it is recommend that producers examine the concentration of nutrients in the product before buying DDGS. A suggested checklist for corn DDGS is outlined in Table 3. In addition it is recommended that assurances be sought for the absence of mycotoxins in DDGS before it is purchased.   

Table 3: Checklist when buying corn DDGS

Item                                      Minimum                              Maximum

Crude protein (%)                      27.0                                            —

Fat (%)                                        9.0                                            —

Phosphorous (%)                       0.55                                            —

Lysine (%)                                 2.80 % of crude protein               —

ADF (%)                                     —                                             12.0

NDF (%)                                     —                                             40.0

From: Stein et al., 2006

Feeding recommendations for DDGS

Many feeding trials have been carried out over the past 5 years with corn DDGS in the US to determine the maximum feeding level for different ages of swine. We conducted a grow-finish feeding trial at a commercial research barn in Irma, AB with corn DDGS sourced from a new generation ethanol plant in Minnesota. The feeding trial found we could feed up to 25% corn DDGS from this new generation ethanol plant and achieve similar biological performance as with a typical Western Canadian diet without corn DDGS (see WHJ Spring, 2007, page 38). From a number of research trials comparing corn DDGS to a corn soybean meal control diet it is suggested that yield or dressing percentage declines as pigs are fed increasing levels of DDGS. It is believed that the higher fibre and/or excess protein in the diet with increasing DDGS levels in the diet are involved with the reduction in dressing percent. Thus, it is important that this be taken into account when calculating the net return to using DDGS and in the decision whether to use DDGS. As a lot of the feeding trials were conducted using corn DDGS sourced from different ethanol plants with some major differences, corn source, old versus new plant (technology), drying process, etc many of the feeding trials come up with different feeding recommendations.

For the most part, if the corn DDGS is purchased from a plant which is taking due care sourcing good quality grain, which has a controlled drying process of the DDGS and where regular nutrient analysis and mycotoxin screening is being conducted, the following are suggested feeding levels:

• Late nursery – 10-15%
• Grower and finisher – 20%
• Dry sow – 20-25%
• Nurse sow – 10-15%

Because of the severe negative long term impact mycotoxins can have on sow reproductive performance it is recommended that regular screening for mycotoxins of DDGS be conducted to ensure mycotoxins are absent or at very low levels. It is very important that producers choose carefully when sourcing DDGS as quality varies from plant to plant. In addition if you are purchasing DDGS through a broker that you know the plant where the DDGS is being sourced from and that the broker is clear that he needs to receive approval from you or your nutritionist to change source.

There is not a lot of research information here in Canada on feeding wheat DDGS to swine. Some of the initial studies have been conducted using wheat DDGS with reduced protein quality and suggest that increasing levels of wheat DDGS may reduce feed intake and growth performance (Thacker, 2006). For some of these trials, diets were not formulated on an NE and digestible amino acid basis, which may have contributed to the reduced growth performance. Contrary to this, research from the Netherlands (Cited by Zijlstra 2007; Smits 2007, personal communication) with diets formulated on a NE and digestible amino acid basis using high quality wheat DDGS found that they can include up to 15% in the diet with no impact on performance. We expect that wheat DDGS sourced from new generation ethanol plants which have taken due care in sourcing good quality wheat, and have a controlled drying process for the DDGS will produce a good quality DDGS. However, it will be important to characterize the quality of the source before using.

Conclusions

With the continued expected growth of the ethanol industry in North America and the resulting availability of corn and wheat DDGS there will be increased availability for and use of DDGS in swine diets. However, considering the variation in nutrient content it is extremely important that producers are informed as much as possible about the source of DDGS to be purchased or being used as all sources are not equal. It is recommended that proper quality control guidelines (minimum specification, nutrient analysis, mycotoxins screening, etc) be put in place and be conducted on a regular basis to allow diets to be adjusted as needed to avoid risking animal performance.

References:

Payne, R. 2007. Current knowledge on Distillers Grains in Animal Nutrition. Eastern Nutrition Conference.

Stein, H. 2007. Distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) in diets fed to swine. Swine Focus.

Thacker, P. A. 2006. Nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing pigs fed diets containing dried wheat distillers grains with solubles. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 86:527-529.

Zijlstra, R., G. Widyaratne, and E. Beltranena; 2007. Characterization of Wheat DDGS and Feeding to Swine. Western Nutrition Conference 2007. pp 207-213.

Photo captions:

1. Malachy_Young-1 – No caption required, just place at start of article

2.  DDGS in store  DDGS is becoming increasing available to Canadian pig producers but quality should be monitored

Single dose therapies can help control disease

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Producers know all too well how quickly disease can spread in a herd, not to mention the dramatic impact it can have on their profitability. Swine respiratory disease (SRD) is costly to North American producers in terms of productivity losses, medication and labour. Clearly, controlling disease is key to running a profitable operation. Producers can take control through good preventative health management practices and by incorporating new drug therapies, such as single dose anti-infectives, into their disease protocols.

Disease treatment – Why single dose therapies?

Water and feed medications are commonly used in hog operations and certainly have their place in the treatment cycle. However, when pigs are sick, they usually eat and drink less so it can be difficult to ensure each pig receives the correct amount of medication. 

Single dose therapies provide a better alternative in many cases. From a practical standpoint, when a complete treatment of anti-infective therapy is contained within a single dose, the animal gets all the medication it needs at once, saving you time and money. There is also the advantage of reduced stress on the animal. Why risk exacerbating an already sick and stressed animal by using a multiple-dose treatment when a single one is available?

By its very nature, single dose administration also ensures compliance, i.e. following veterinary recommendations. You could say that compliance is “built-in”. Not following a medication’s directions can create unnecessary problems. For example, when a sick pig begins to look better, producers may be inclined to stop treating the animal. This is an easy mistake to make, but the repercussions can be serious and may hinder the animal’s recovery and lead to relapse. Additionally, the development of antimicrobial resistance is a potential threat in under-dosed animals.

The moral of the story is that to make the most of anti-infective therapies and minimize the costs and impact of disease, it is vital to follow the correct dosage and recommended duration of therapy. These two success factors are easily achieved with a single dose product allowing you to focus on other management issues.

Disease prevention – herd health management protocols

Disease treatment will likely always be part of your routine; so should herd health management protocols. Why? Remember the old saying that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Adopting herd health management protocols can help to prevent disease from occurring in the first place and help producers and barn employees recognize the symptoms when disease does occur.

Producers can take certain steps to ensure their barn environment is as healthy as possible, minimizing the stress on animals. For example, barns should be constructed to maximize comfort including protection from drafts, moisture and variable temperatures. Animals should also have access to food and fresh, clean water at all times. Your veterinarian can provide other suggestions and assist you in developing a herd health program that’s right for your operation.

As effective as single dose therapies can be in treating and controlling the spread of disease, they only work to their full potential if a producer follows proper herd health management protocols. By doing both, you can help ensure the continued good health, performance and optimal profitability of your herd.

Dr. Don McDermid is Manager of Veterinary Services – Swine, at Pfizer Animal Health Canada